Nouns

Nouns are words that refer to a person, place, thing, or idea.

Common nouns

Common nouns are nouns that refer to a general—rather than a specific—person, place, thing, or idea. A common noun should not be capitalized unless there is a grammatical reason to do so, such as the noun being the first word in a sentence.

• Example: student, brother, firefighter (person)
• Example: canyon, supermarket, country, outer space (place)
• Example: pencil, car, dog, tree, nose, comet (thing)
• Example: freedom, mathematics, taxation, democracy, communism (idea)

Some words function as multiple parts of speech.

• Example: I looked up at the blue sky. (adjective)
• Example: The blue of the ocean is filled with mystery. (noun)

• Example: I run every morning before school starts. (verb)
• Example: Every morning before school starts, I go for a run. (noun)

Proper nouns

Proper nouns are nouns that refer to a specific person, place, thing, or idea. A proper noun should generally be capitalized. Some proper nouns must also be italicized, such as the names of vessels and works of art. Refer to the Related Pages column for more information on capitalization and italicization.

• Example: George Washington, President Washington (person)
• Example: Paris, Disney World (place)
• Example: Honda Civic, Mona Lisa, USS Enterprise, Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets (thing)
• Example: Big Bang, Marxism (idea)

A noun can be used as a proper noun or as part of a proper noun when referring to something specific.

• Example: He looked for advice on how to be a good father. (common noun)
• Example: I waited in the living room for Father to return. (proper noun)

 

• Example: She had to wake up early to take the bus to her high school. (common noun)
• Example: She graduated from Plant High School. (proper noun)

Nouns that refer to ideas are sometimes treated as proper nouns. This is most common for principles like liberty, justice, or fortune or for natural phenomena like death, spring, or night. Generally, when ideas are treated as proper nouns, it is because they are being personified—being treated as if they were people.

• Example: Slavery is an evil that Liberty cannot accept.
• Example: I felt Death’s scythe swing at me and barely miss.
• Example: After many cold months, Spring finally wrapped us in gentle warmth.

Plural nouns

Plural nouns are nouns that refer to multiple people, places, things, or ideas.

Refer to the Related Pages column for more information on how to pluralize nouns. 

• Example: actor – actors (person)
• Example: plateau – plateaus (place)
• Example: bus – buses (thing)
• Example: monarchy – monarchies (idea)

Collective nouns

Collective nouns are nouns that refer to groups of people, places, things, or ideas. Collective nouns can be common nouns or proper nouns.

Collective common nouns:

• Example: team, band, family, jury (people)
• Example: mountain range, strip (places)
• Example: herd, flock, collection, set (things)
• Example: mathematics, literature, code (ideas)

Collective proper nouns:

• Example: Americans, The Beatles, Metallica (people)
• Example: Blue Ridge Mountains, the Seven Seas (places)
• Example: The Criterion Collection, Goya’s Black Paintings (things)
• Example: Ten Commandments, Four Noble Truths (ideas)

Context determines whether to treat a collective noun as a plural or singular form. If referring to a collective noun as a single entity, treat the collective noun as singular. If referring to a collective noun as a group of individuals, treat the collective noun as plural.

• Example: My favorite band is The Beatles.
• Example: The Beatles are talented and creative musicians. 

Pronouns

Pronouns are words that are used in place of nouns. Pronouns are used to avoid repetition or to discuss things that are not clearly defined.  When a pronoun refers to a noun that comes before it, that noun is considered the pronoun’s antecedent. Pronouns can either be direct pronouns, which have antecedents, or indirect pronouns, which do not have antecedents.

Here is an example of a direct pronoun.

• Example: James went to the store. James bought James’s favorite snacks.
• Example: James went to the store. He bought his favorite snacks.

Here is an example of an indirect pronoun:

• Example: Who wants to go to the party?

In the above example, there is no antecedent—the word Who does not refer to any noun in the sentence.

In this section, we will examine different types of pronouns.

Personal pronouns

Personal pronouns are used to refer to a noun (a person, place, thing, or idea). Three factors determine which personal pronoun should be used in a sentence: case, point of view, and whether the noun is singular or plural.

Case

Case refers to whether the pronoun is possessive and whether the pronoun is the sentence’s subject or one of its objects.

• Subject: The boy chased the father. He chased the father.
• Object: The boy chased the father. The boy chased him.
• Possessive: The boy is the father’s son. The boy is his son.

Point of view

Point of view refers to whether the pronoun is in first person, second person, or third person perspective.

• First person: I go to the store.
• Second person: You go to the store.
• Third person: He goes to the store. She goes to the store. They go to the store. It goes to the store.

Singular and plural forms

Singular pronouns refer to a single person, place, thing, or idea. Plural pronouns refer to multiple people, places, things, or ideas.

• Singular: Jack goes to the mall. He goes to the mall.
• Plural: Jack and I go to the mall. We go to the mall.

Reflexive and intensive pronouns

Reflexive pronouns

A reflexive pronoun is used when the object or complement in a sentence refers to the same noun that is in the subject. Use a reflexive pronoun when a noun is doing something to itself.

• Example: I looked in the mirror and examined myself.
• Example: Jack is teaching himself piano.

Intensive pronouns

An intensive pronoun is used immediately after a noun or pronoun for the purpose of emphasis. Reflexive and intensive pronouns use the same word form.

• Example: The Black Knight was none other than King Arthur himself.
• Example: Hemingway himself once sat at that very café table overlooking the sea.
• Example: She herself could not care less either way.

Personal pronoun

Singular Personal Pronoun Table

Tense	Subject	Object	Possessive	Reflexive/ Intensive
First person	I	me	my, mine	myself
Second person	you	you	you, yours	yourself
Third person	he, she, they, it	him, her, them, it	his, her, hers, their, theirs, its	himself, herself, themself, themselves

 

Plural Personal Prounoun Table

Tense	Subject	Object	Possessive	Reflexive/ Intensive
First person	we	us	our, ours	ourselves
Second person	you	you	your, yours	yourselves
Third person	they	them	their, theirs	themselves

 

Singular they

They can be used as either a singular or plural pronoun. The singular they should be treated as plural for the purposes of verb forms.

• Example: Sam has a pet cat. They have a pet cat.

The singular they takes the reflexive form of themselves. 

• Example: The student who caused this mess better clean up after themselves.

Nonbinary pronouns and neopronouns

Individuals who are nonbinary may use the singular they as a personal pronoun in place of she/her/hers or he/him/his. If a nonbinary individual uses they as a personal pronoun, the reflexive form themself may be used instead of themselves when referring to the nonbinary individual.

• Example: Sam treated themself to ice cream.
• Example: They treated themself to ice cream.

Neopronouns are personal pronouns that are used by some nonbinary individuals. Examples of neopronouns include zie/zir/zirs, sie/hir/hirs, and e/em/eir, among others. When referring to an individual who uses neopronouns, consult the source from which you are referring for guidance on which pronouns to use. You may choose to mention the individual’s preferred pronouns when introducing that individual within your text for the first time.

• Example: Maia Kobabe (who uses e/em/eir pronouns) is a nonbinary cartoonist. Eir graphic memoir, Gender Queer, has been frequently challenged and banned in United States schools.

Reciprocal pronouns

A reciprocal pronoun is used when multiple people, places, things, or ideas are engaged in an exchange with one another. A reciprocal pronoun is used when nouns are doing something among themselves.

Here is a list of reciprocal pronouns:

• each other
• one another

Use each other or one another when one plural noun is involved in an exchange.

• Example: The girls did each other’s braids.
• Example: The bitter enemies fought one another to the death.

Use each other or one another when multiple nouns are involved in an exchange.

• Example: Robin and Claire shared baking tips with one another.
• Example: The tenant, the landlady, and the real estate company were all angry at each other.

Each other and one another may be used interchangeably.

Indefinite pronouns

An indefinite pronoun is used to talk about something that is not clearly defined. Some indefinite pronouns are singular and some are plural. There are also indefinite pronouns that may be singular or plural depending on context.

There are too many indefinite pronouns to list in this guide. Here are some common ones:

• One
• All
• None
• Some
• Every
• Few
• Several
• Many
• More
• Most
• Nothing
• Nowhere
• Everywhere
• Either
• Neither

Some indefinite pronouns are singular:

• Example: One can never be too careful these days.
• Example: Nothing is set in stone.

Some indefinite pronouns are plural:

• Example: Few are more dedicated than Jamie.
• Example: Several attend the festival each year.

Some indefinite pronouns may be used in either singular or plural form, depending on context:

• Example: All are accounted for.
• Example: All is well.

Interrogative pronouns

Interrogative pronouns ask questions about a noun. Unlike personal pronouns, these pronouns do not have noun antecedents.

Listed below are the five (5) interrogative pronouns:

• who
• whom
• whose
• what
• which

The interrogative pronouns who and whom are only used to refer to people.

Use who as the subject form in a sentence.

• Example: Sally threw the ball to Jack.
• Example: Who threw the ball to Jack?

Use whom as the object form in a sentence.

• Example: Sally threw the ball to Jack.
• Example: Sally threw the ball to whom?

Use whose as the possessive form in a sentence.

• Example: Sally threw Nadine’s ball to Jack.
• Example: Sally threw whose ball to Jack?

Use what as either the subject or object form in a sentence.

• Example: The monkey threw the ball.
• Example: What threw the ball?
• Example: The monkey threw what?

Use which as either the subject or object form in a sentence.

• Example: Which is the better model?
• Example: Which did Jackie pick?

Relative pronouns

Relative pronouns connect the main clause of a sentence with a relative clause that modifies it. Relative pronouns are usually direct pronouns and have a noun antecedent in the sentence’s subject.

Here is a list of relative pronouns:

• who
• whom
• whose
• that
• which

Use who when the noun antecedent is in the sentence’s subject. Use who to refer only to people.

• Example: My brother took all the blame for the broken window.
• Example: It was my brother who took all the blame for the broken window.

Use whom when the noun antecedent is one of the sentence’s objects. Use whom to refer only to people.

• Example: Claire wrote a fan letter to Billie Eilish.
• Example: It was Billie Eilish to whom Claire wrote a fan letter.
• Example: The committee revealed the chess grandmaster to be a cheater.
• Example: The chess grandmaster, whom the committee revealed to be a cheater, was banned for life.

Use whose when the relative clause indicates possession. Use whose to refer to people, places, things, or ideas.

• Example: The boy’s lunch money was stolen by a bully.
• Example: The boy, whose lunch money was stolen by a bully, has been crying all day.
• Example: She couldn’t remember the musical’s name.
• Example: She asked me if I knew about the musical whose name she couldn’t remember.

Use that when the relative clause is restrictive (also known as defining) and contains necessary information about the noun antecedent. Use that to refer to people, places, things, or ideas.

• Example: He drank from the cup.
• Example: He drank from the cup that wasn’t poisoned.

In the above examples, the restrictive relative clause that wasn’t poisoned is necessary information for the meaning of the sentence. He drank from the cup may function as a complete sentence, but the meaning is fundamentally changed without the relative clause that wasn’t poisoned.

Use which when the relative clause is non-restrictive (also known as non-defining) and does not contain necessary information about the noun antecedent. Use which to refer to places, things, or ideas, but not people.

• Example: The snake bit him in the ankle.
• Example: The snake, which had very colorful scales, bit him in the ankle.

In the above examples, the non-restrictive relative clause which had very colorful scales is not necessary information for the meaning of the sentence. Excluding which had very colorful scales does not fundamentally change the meaning of the sentence, as shown in the second example.

Demonstrative pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns are used instead of a noun when conveying specificity or location. Demonstrative pronouns may be singular or plural and may point to something close or something far.

Here is a list of demonstrative pronouns:

• This
• These
• That
• Those

Use this to convey closeness for a singular noun.

• Example: The kitten in my arms is my kitten.
• Example: This is my kitten.

Use these to convey closeness for a plural noun.

• Example: The kittens in my arms are my kittens.
• Example: These are my kittens.

Use that to convey distance for a singular noun.

• Example: The kitten you are holding is my kitten.
• Example: That is my kitten you are holding.

Use those to convey distance for a plural form.

• Example: The kittens you are holding are my kittens.
• Example: Those are my kittens you are holding.

Expletive pronouns

Expletive pronouns are vague indirect pronouns that are used in a subject or clause instead of a regular noun. Expletive pronouns fill the grammatical role of a noun while providing no extra meaning. Expletive pronouns are often used when describing the weather.

Here is a list of expletive pronouns:

• It
• There

Use it or there instead of a noun in a sentence’s subject:

• Example: It is raining.
• Example: There is a thunderstorm.

Use it or there instead of a noun in a sentence’s clause:

• Example: Julie studied because it was the only way to become a better artist.
• Example: Gollum knew there was no possible answer to Bilbo’s riddle.

Difficulties with pronouns

In this section, we will examine some of the common issues writers have with pronoun usage and explain how to avoid making errors.

I or me

The word I is used in a sentence’s subject. The word me is used in a sentence’s object. This remains true even in compound structures.

• Example: Aiden and I gave the present to Julie.
• Example: Julie gave the present to Aiden and me.

If you are unsure if you should use I or me because of a compound structure, try removing that compound structure to determine which form to use.

• Example: Aiden and I gave the present to Julie.
• Example: I gave the present to Julie.
• Example: Julie gave the present to Aiden and me.
• Example: Julie gave the present to me.

I or me for comparisons

The phrases than I and than me are both grammatically correct. The word than can be used as a conjunction for subjects or as a preposition for objects.

• Example: Cynthia is faster than I.
• Example: Cynthia is faster than I am.

In the above examples, the word than is being used as a conjunction, so the use of the subject-form I is acceptable. Note that the sentence Cynthia is faster than I omits the implied word am.

• Example: Cynthia is faster than me.

In the above example, Cynthia is the subject of the sentence and me is the object of the sentence.

Who or whom

The word who is used in a sentence’s subject. The word whom is used in a sentence’s object. If you are unsure if you should use who or whom, try rephrasing the sentence so the subject and object of the sentence are easier to identify.

• Example: Who caught the ball?
• Example: Julie caught the ball.

In the above example, Julie is the subject of the sentence, so the word who should be used.

• Example: To whom did you send the email?
• Example: You sent the email to Alex.

In the above example, Alex is the indirect object of the sentence, so the word whom should be used.

• Example: Whom did I help?
• Example: I helped Nathan.

In the above example, Nathan is the direct object of the sentence, so the word whom should be used.

In informal speech and writing, the word who is more frequently used than whom, even as a sentence’s object. However, in academic and formal writing, use who for subjects and whom for objects.

What are Verbs?

Verbs are words that refer to actions or states of being. The three verb categories are action verbs, linking verbs, and helping verbs. Verbs are modified by tense—past, present, and future—and have singular and plural forms.

Action verbs

Action verbs convey an action that a noun is taking.

• Example: Ron throws the ball.

In the above example, Ron is the noun and throws is the verb.

Here are some additional examples of action verbs:

• Example: Julie will watch the movie.
• Example: Hans and Sammy played in a band.
• Example: I ran to third base and then stole home plate.

Linking verbs

Linking verbs convey a state of being.

• Example: Jason is tall.

In the above example, Jason is the noun and is is the verb. Jason is not engaging in an action in the sentence—he is not throwing, or jumping, or running. The verb is conveys his state of being tall. As a linking verb, is connects the noun Jason to the adjective tall.

Here are some additional examples of linking verbs:

• Example: You are very smart.
• Example: Jason was short for his age.
• Example: He seemed like a nice person.
• Example: I became interested in watercolor painting.
• Example: Jamie has been a novelist for many years.

Helping verbs

Helping verbs, also known as auxiliary verbs, are words that help other verbs in a sentence.

• Example: Nathan is writing an essay.

In the above example, is functions as a helping verb to the action verb writing. Notice that is can also function as a linking verb, as in the sentence Julie is a doctor.

Here are some additional examples of helping verbs:

• Example: After all that hard work, I could go for a cup of lemonade.
• Example: I must study for my exam.
• Example: Julie should clean her room; it’s very messy.
• Example: I need to get a haircut.

A sentence can consist of a subject and a helping verb if there is an implied action verb that is being omitted.

• Example: I can help with the project.
• Example: I can.
• Example: I can, since I have enough free time.

Verb tense

Tense refers to the period in time in which verbs occur. The three primary tenses are past tense, present tense, and future tense. Each of these tenses can also be further categorized into simple, continuous, perfect, and perfect continuous aspects.

In English, the continuous aspect is also called progressive or imperfect.

Past tense

Past tense refers to verbs that already occurred. Many—but not all—past tense verbs end in -ed.

• Example: I walked to the store last week.
• Example: I was sleepy last night.
• Example: I needed to get a haircut.

Present tense

Present tense refers to verbs as they occur.

• Example: Frodo travels to Mordor.
• Example: Frodo is brave.
• Example: Frodo must travel to Mordor.

Future tense

Future tense refers to verbs that will occur. Verbs in the future tense generally require the word will to precede them.

• Example: King Arthur will return from Avalon.
• Example: Sam will be tall when he’s older.
• Example: Julie will help plan your wedding.

Continuous aspect

The continuous aspect refers to verbs that occur over a duration of time and may repeat or continue to occur. Verbs in the continuous aspect generally end in -ing and require the past, present, or future form of the verb to be to precede them.

• Example: Aiden was playing Pokémon yesterday.
• Example: Aiden is playing Pokémon today.
• Example: Aiden will be playing Pokémon tomorrow.

Perfect aspect

The usage of perfect in this term comes from its Latin meaning of “completed.” The perfect aspect refers to verbs that occur over a duration of time but have been completed, are completing, or will be completed. Verbs in the perfect aspect generally use their past tense spelling and require the past, present, or future form of the verb has to precede them.

• Example: Julie had spoken to the man once before.
• Example: Alfonse has trained all his life for this violin concerto.
• Example: Starting February, Frankie will have worked at the company for thirty years.

Perfect continuous aspect

The perfect continuous aspect refers to verbs that occur over a duration of time and formerly occurred continuously, currently occur continuously, or will eventually occur continuously. Verbs in the perfect continuous aspect generally end in -ing and require the past, present, or future form of the verb phrase has been to precede them.

• Example: Megan had been practicing soccer three times a week until she hurt her ankle.
• Example: The oldest pub in town has been operating since the 1600s.
• Example: By the time you get into town, I will have been sleeping at the hotel for three hours.

Verb Tense Table

	Past	Present	Future
Simple	Amy spoke to the man.	Amy speaks to the man.	Amy will speak to the man.
Continuous	Amy was speaking to the man.	Amy is speaking to the man.	Amy will be speaking to the man.
Perfect	Amy had spoken to the man.	Amy has spoken to the man.	Amy will have spoken to the man.
Perfect Continuous	Amy had been speaking to the man.	Amy has been speaking to the man.	Amy will have been speaking to the man.

 

Verb Pluralization

Refer to the Pluralization section for rules on pluralizing verbs.

What is an Adverb?

Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. Adverbs can also modify sentences. Adverbs can often—but not always—be identified by the suffix -ly.

• Example: Lily carefully planted the sapling. (adverb modifies verb)

• Example: He painted a magnificently colorful landscape. (adverb modifies adjective)

• Example: Aiden very quietly pulled a cookie from the cookie jar. (adverb modifies adverb)

• Example: The boxer punched fast and hard. (adverbs modify verb)
• Example: Fortunately, I found a spare pencil to lend to Julie. (adverb modifies sentence)

Adverbs for comparisons

Adverbs fall under three categories: absolute, comparative, and superlative. Comparative and superlative adverbs are used to make comparisons.

Absolute adverbs

Absolute adverbs are regular adverbs that are not used to make comparisons.

• Example: Thomas studied diligently for the test.

Comparative adverbs

Comparative adverbs are adverbs that are used to make comparisons between two or more verbs, adjectives, adverbs, or sentences. The words more or less should precede a comparative adverb.

• Example: Thomas studied more diligently for the test than his peers.
• Example: Jamie studied less diligently for the test than his peers.

Superlative adverbs

Superlative adverbs are adverbs that are used for comparisons when a verb, adjective, adverb, or sentence has the most extreme quality possible among the things being compared. The words most or least should precede a superlative adverb.

• Example: Thomas studied most diligently for the test out of all his peers.
• Example: Jamie studied least diligently for the test out of all his peers.

Adverb placement

In many situations, adverb placement does not affect the meaning of a sentence.

• Example: I ran quickly.
• Example: I quickly ran.

However, there are situations where adverb placement can significantly affect the meaning of a sentence. This is especially true for adverbs that place limits on the words they modify, such as only, solely, or just.

• Example: The nanny just fed the toddler.

The above example implies that the nanny recently fed the toddler.

• Example: The nanny fed just the toddler.

The above example implies that the toddler was the only person the nanny fed.

Adverbs and linking verbs

As previously discussed, adverbs can modify verbs. Some words, like feel or smell, can function as both action verbs and linking verbs. Because linking verbs like feel or smell connect nouns to adjectives, it can be difficult to tell if an adjective or an adverb should be used in a sentence that contains such verbs.

Bad or badly

• Example: The dog smelled bad.

In the above example, smelled is used as a linking verb, connecting the noun dog to the adjective bad.  In this example, the dog has a bad odor.

• Example: The dog smelled badly.

In the above example, smelled is used as an action verb. The adverb badly modifies the verb smelled. In this example, the dog is bad at smelling.

• Example: Despite last week’s bath, the dog quickly smelled bad again.

The above example contains both an adverb (quickly) and an adjective (bad). Notice that quickly modifies the linking verb smelled and bad modifies dog. In this example, the dog had a bad odor that returned soon after taking a bath.

Good or well

The adverb form of the word good is well. Generally, the word good is used as an adjective and the word well is used as an adverb. However, the word well is also used as an adjective when describing health.

•  Example: Her son was good.

In the above example, the adjective good modifies the noun son.

• Example: Her son sings well.

In the above example, the adverb well modifies the verb sings.

• Example: After the surgery, her son was well.

In the above example, the adjective well modifies the noun son.

The word good may be used informally as an adverb, but in scholarly or academic writing, good should generally be used as an adjective.

What are Adjectives?

Adjectives describe the qualities or quantities of nouns.

• Example: Sally wore the blue dress.
• Example: Several piranhas swam in the Amazon River.
• Example: The crazy cat lady had fourteen cats.
• Example: The quick brown fox jumped over the lazy dog.

In the above examples, the adjectives directly precede the nouns they modify.

Predicate adjectives

A predicate adjective is an adjective that is connected to a noun by a linking verb.

• Example: Sally felt sleepy.
• Example: The flower is pink.
• Example: She seemed happy, but I couldn’t be certain.
• Example: The sky looked beautiful at twilight.

Adjectives for comparisons

Adjectives fall under three categories: absolute, comparative, and superlative. Comparative and superlative adjectives are used to make comparisons.

Absolute adjectives

Absolute adjectives are regular adjectives and are used when no comparison is being made.

• Example: The hamburger was good.
• Example: The sky was blue.
• Example: The smart student studied for the test.

Comparative adjectives

Comparative adjectives are used when two or more nouns are being compared. The nouns being compared may be implied.

When an adjective is one or two syllables long, add the suffix -er to make the comparative word form.

• Example: Your father was happy to see you, but your mother was even happier.
• Example: The fast runner completed a mile in ten minutes.
• Example: The faster runner completed a mile in nine minutes.
• Example: The muffin was sweet.
• Example: The cupcake was sweeter.

When an adjective is one or two syllables long and ends in the letter y, remove the y and add the suffix -ier to make the comparative word form.

• Example: The lazy dog went to sleep after his walk.
• Example: The lazier dog wouldn’t even stand up.
• Example: The syrup was sticky.
• Example: The honey was stickier.

When an adjective is three or more syllables long, the word more precedes the adjective.

• Example: The courteous passenger didn’t put his legs up on the back of my seat.
• Example: The more courteous passenger offered me his window seat.
• Example: The flower is beautiful.
• Example: You are more beautiful.

Superlative adjectives

Superlative adjectives are used for comparisons when a noun has the most extreme quality possible among the things being compared. The nouns being compared may be implied.

When an adjective is one or two syllables long, add the suffix -est to make the superlative word form.

• Example: Your father was happy to see you, and your mother was even happier, but your cat, Mister Fluffers, was the happiest of them all.
• Example: The fast runner completed a mile in under ten minutes.
• Example: The faster runner completed a mile in under nine minutes.
• Example: The fastest runner completed a mile in under four minutes.
• Example: The muffin was sweet.
• Example: The cupcake was sweeter.
• Example: The cotton candy was the sweetest.

When an adjective is one or two syllables long and ends in the letter y, remove the y and add the suffix -iest to make the superlative word form.

• Example: The lazy dog went to sleep after his walk.
• Example: The lazier dog wouldn’t even stand up.
• Example: The laziest dog wasn’t even awake.
• Example: The syrup was sticky.
• Example: The honey was stickier.
• Example: The glue was stickiest.

When an adjective is three or more syllables long, the word most precedes the adjective.

• Example: The courteous passenger didn’t put his legs up on the back of my seat.
• Example: The more courteous passenger offered me his window seat.
• Example: The most courteous passenger offered to carry my bags for me.
• Example: The flower was beautiful.
• Example: You are more beautiful.
• Example: The bowl of mac & cheese is most beautiful.

When making a negative superlative comparison, the word least precedes the adjective regardless of its syllable length.

• Example: She wanted the bitter cup of coffee.
• Example: She wanted the less bitter cup of coffee.
• Example: She wanted the least bitter cup of coffee.
• Example: The adventurous child explored the swamp.
• Example: The less adventurous child explored the neighborhood.
• Example: The least adventurous child explored the fridge.

Some adjectives have unique comparative and superlative word forms.

• Example: The first contestant was good.
• Example: The second contestant was better.
• Example: The third contestant was the best.
• Example: The first contestant was bad.
• Example: The second contestant was worse.
• Example: The third contestant was the worst.

Coordinate adjectives

When multiple adjectives describe the same noun, they may or may not be coordinate adjectives. Coordinate adjectives are two or more adjectives of equal importance that modify the same noun.

When you use coordinate adjectives to modify a noun, the adjectives must be separated by a comma or the word and if they appear next to each other. Coordinate adjectives can be listed in any order.

• Example: Cassandra was thoughtful and intelligent.
• Example: Cassandra was intelligent and thoughtful.
• Example: The hot, humid day seemed to drag on forever.
• Example: The humid, hot day seemed to drag on forever.

In the above examples, both pairs of adjectives are coordinate because they modify the same nouns and are of equal importance.

For adjectives that are not coordinate, the adjective that is more innate to the noun should be closest to the noun.

• Correct: We helped repair the town’s six brick cottages.
• Incorrect: We helped repair the town’s brick six cottages.

In the above example, the construction of the cottages is more innate to the cottages than their number—the cottages are brick cottages before they are six cottages.

What are Prepositions?

Prepositions are words that position sentences in time and space and show relationships between things.

There are many prepositions in the English language. Here is an incomplete list of prepositions:

• Before
• After
• Over
• Under
• In
• Out
• On
• Off
• Until
• With
• Against
• Despite

Prepositions can indicate positions in time.

• Example: I watched a movie before I ate dinner.
• Example: I got to school at 8:30 a.m.

Prepositions can indicate positions in space.

• Example: We drove under the highway overpass.
• Example: My brother has been out of the house since morning.

Prepositions can indicate relationships between things.

• Example: I wrote off the fancy cardstock as a business expense.
• Example: My historian friend could talk endlessly about ancient Rome.

Prepositions can show more than one type of relationship.

• Example: The bridge went over the Hillsborough River. (Space)
• Example: My presentation went over the ten-minute time limit. (Time)

There are times when a variety of prepositions may be acceptable in a sentence. This is often the case when discussing abstract concepts such as the mind or digital spaces.

• Example: You can find out more on our website.
• Example: You can find out more at our website.
• Example: He thought on the subject heavily.
• Example: He thought about the subject heavily.

There are times when different prepositions can significantly change the meaning of a sentence.

• Example: The duck came to the animal handler.
• Example: The duck came at the animal handler.

In the first example, the duck moved toward the animal handler. In the second example, the duck attacked the animal handler.

Prepositional phrases

A prepositional phrase is a group of words that contains a preposition, the preposition’s object, and any words that modify the object.

• Example: Maddy went to school.

In the above example, the prepositional phrase contains the preposition to and the object school.

• Example: Maddy went to night school.

In the above example, the prepositional phrase contains the preposition to, the object school, and the adjective night.

Prepositional phrases may function like adjectives, adverbs, or nouns.

Adjectival phrases

A prepositional phrase that modifies a noun or pronoun is known as an adjectival phrase, as it functions like an adjective.

• Example: She wanted to attend school in South Korea.

In the above example, the noun school is modified by the prepositional phrase in South Korea.

• Example: Though they weren’t related, Julie thought of her as a sister.

In the above example, the pronoun her is modified by the prepositional phrase as a sister.

Adverbial phrases

A prepositional phrase that modifies a verb, adverb, or adjective is known as an adverbial phrase, as it functions like an adverb.

• Example: She searched under her desk.

In the above example, the verb searched is modified by the prepositional phrase under her desk.

• Example: She arrived just in time.

In the above example, the adverb just is modified by the prepositional phrase in time.

• Example: She was sleepy after the lecture.

In the above example, the adjective sleepy is modified by the prepositional phrase after the lecture.

Nominal phrases

A prepositional phrase that functions as a noun is known as a nominal phrase. Nominal phrases are also known as nominals or noun phrases.

• Example: After six in the evening is far too late for me to have a cup of coffee.

In the above example, the nominal phrase After six in the evening takes the role of a noun in the sentence.

What are Conjunctions?

The word conjunction means “joined together.” Conjunctions are words that join parts of sentences together. A conjunction can join words, phrases, or clauses.

The three most common types of conjunctions are coordinating conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions, and correlative conjunctions.

Coordinating conjunctions

The word coordinate means “same rank.” Coordinating conjunctions are used to join together two grammatical units of equal importance. Use coordinating conjunctions to connect two adjectives, adverbs, nouns, phrases, or independent clauses. When connecting two independent clauses with a coordinating conjunction, a comma must be placed before the coordinating conjunction.

Here is a list of coordinating conjunctions. These can be remembered with the acronym FANBOYS.

• For
• And
• Nor
• But
• Or
• Yet
• So

Connecting words:

• Example: Jack was fast but clumsy. (Connecting adjectives)
• Example: Billy and Mandy went to school. (Connecting nouns)

Connecting phrases:

• Example: We traveled over the hills and under the shadows of mountains. (Connecting adverbial phrases)
• Example: Right before sunrise and right after sunset are my favorite times to run. (Connecting nominal phrases)

Connecting clauses:

• Example: Julie went to the store, but Jack went to music practice. (Connecting independent clauses)

Subordinating conjunctions

The word subordinate means “lower rank.” Subordinating conjunctions are used to join together clauses when one of the clauses is lower rank than the other. Use subordinating conjunctions to connect a dependent clause to an independent clause.

Here is an incomplete list of subordinating conjunctions:

• As
• As long as
• Although
• Because
• If
• In case
• In order
• Since
• So
• Unless
• While

An independent clause is a clause that can function as a complete sentence. A dependent clause is a clause that cannot function as a complete sentence. The subordinating conjunction connects these two clauses.

• Example: Jamie kept falling asleep during class. (Independent clause)
• Example: because he stayed up too late (Dependent clause)
• Example: Jamie kept falling asleep during class because he stayed up too late. (Clauses connected by subordinating conjunction)

When the independent clause comes first in a sentence with a subordinating conjunction, a comma is not required to separate the two clauses.

• Example: Gandalf gave the Ring to Frodo since he knew he could trust the goodness of hobbits.

When the dependent clause comes first in a sentence with a subordinating conjunction, a comma is required to separate the two clauses.

• Example: Since he knew he could trust the goodness of hobbits, Gandalf gave the Ring to Frodo.

Subordinating conjunctions can be a single word, like because, or a group of words, like as long as.

• Example: We had spaghetti for dinner because he loved Italian food.
• Example: As long as we have Italian food for dinner, he will be happy.

Correlative conjunctions

The word correlative means “related together.” Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunctions that relate information together in a sentence.

Here is an incomplete list of correlative conjunctions:

• Either/or
• Neither/nor
• Not only/but also
• Both/and

Order matters for correlative conjunctions. The first item listed in each pair shown above must come first in a sentence.

• Example: Julie will take either strawberry or vanilla ice cream.
• Example: Neither Julie nor Nathan enjoys banana ice cream.
• Example: Batman is not only a genius detective but also a master of martial arts.
• Example: Batman is both a genius detective and a master of martial arts.

What are Articles?

Articles are words that mark a noun as being specific or nonspecific.

There are three articles in the English language:

• The
• A
• A

Use the article the when the noun you are describing is specific.

• Example: I went to the biggest mall in the city.

Use the article a when the noun you are describing is nonspecific and begins with a consonant sound.

• Example: I watched a movie.
• Example: My child wanted a unicorn.

Use the article an when the noun you are describing is nonspecific and begins with a vowel sound.

• Example: I opened an umbrella.
• Example: I drank an herbal tea to soothe my stomach.

If any words come between the article and noun, use the sound of the word immediately after the article to determine if you should use a or an.

• Example: She made a bombastic entrance.
• Example: A rapidly approaching elephant crossed the road.
• I watched an excellent movie.

Interjections

Interjections are words or expressions that interrupt the normal flow of a sentence. Interjections can also function as complete sentences. Almost any word or expression can be used as an interjection, but some of the most common interjections are words like oops, wow, or oh no.

Here are some examples of ways that interjections are commonly incorporated into writing.

• Example: I was watching the baseball game, and wow, what a home run!
• Example: Oh no! I forgot to do my math homework.
• Example: The singer was only nineteen—wow!—when she won her first Grammy.
• Example: The singer was only nineteen (wow!) when she won her first Grammy.
• Example: Oops, I did it again!

Interjections are usually informal and should be avoided in academic writing.

What is a Subject?

The subject of a sentence identifies who or what the sentence is about. Nouns, pronouns, gerunds, and phrases can all be subjects. Subjects can be singular or plural. The subject has two forms: the simple subject and the complete subject.

Simple subject

The simple subject refers to the main word or words that the sentence is about.

• Example: The biggest tree in the yard is a chrysanthemum tree.

In the above example, the noun tree is the simple subject.

Complete subject

The complete subject refers to the simple subject and any additional words that modify the simple subject.

• Example: The biggest tree in the yard is a chrysanthemum tree.

In the above example, the complete subject consists of an article (the), an adjective (biggest), the simple subject (tree), and a prepositional phrase (in the yard).

Noun as subject

A noun is a person, place, thing, or idea.

• Example: The brown dog ran to the tree.
• Example: Dogs love to eat dog treats.
• Example: Dogs and cats are more popular pets than frogs and snails.

Pronoun as subject

A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun.

• Example: They went to a movie.
• Example: Who is at the door?
• Example: Anyone can tell you that two plus two equals four.

Gerund as subject

A gerund is a verbal, a word that has the qualities of both a verb and a noun. Gerunds are recognizable by their -ing suffix.

• Example: Running is a great way to keep healthy.
• Example: Lying by the shore is my idea of a perfect day.

Phrase as subject

Infinitive phrases, which begin with infinitives like the word to, can be used as subjects for a sentence. Nominal phrases, which function as a noun, can also be used as subjects.

• Example: To sing is to communicate your feelings.
• Example: After dark is a terrible time to drink a shot of espresso.

What is a Predicate?

The predicate of a sentence describes the state or action of the subject. The predicate has two forms: the simple predicate and the complete predicate.

Simple predicate

The simple predicate refers to the verb or verbs of the sentence.

• Example: Fish swim.

Multiple verbs can function as the predicate of a sentence.

• Example: Flying fish swim and fly.

Linking verbs can function as the predicate of a sentence.

• Example: Fish are beautiful.

The predicate can include a verb participle and a form of the verb to be.

• Example: Fish are breeding.
• Example: Fish have been breeding.

Complete predicate

The complete predicate refers to everything in the sentence that is not part of the subject.

• Example: Bruce Wayne is a wealthy playboy.

In the above example, the complete predicate consists of the verb (is), a particle (a), an adjective (wealthy), and a complement (playboy).

• Example: By day, Bruce Wayne is a wealthy playboy.
• Example: Bruce Wayne is a wealthy playboy by day.

In the above example, the prepositional phrase by day is part of the complete predicate regardless of its position in the sentence. This is because by day modifies playboy, which is part of the predicate.

What is an Object?

An object is a word or group of words in a sentence that receives the action of a verb. Nouns, pronouns, gerunds, and phrases can all be objects. There are two types of objects: direct objects and indirect objects.

Direct object

The direct object is the object that is being acted upon by the verb in a sentence.

• Example: I threw the ball.
• Example: Apollo Creed punched Rocky.

The direct object does not always need to come after the verb in a sentence. This is often the case when a sentence is written in passive voice.

• Example: The ball was thrown by me.
• Example: Rocky was punched by Apollo Creed.

An easy way to identify the direct object is to ask a question about who or what received the action of a sentence.

• What did I throw? I threw the ball.
• Who did Apollo Creed punch? Apollo Creed punched Rocky.

Indirect object

The indirect object is a secondary object that is being acted upon by a verb in a sentence. A sentence must have a direct object in order to have an indirect object.

• Example: I gave the apple to Julie.
• Example: I gave Julie the apple.

The indirect object does not always need to come after the verb in a sentence. This is often the case when a sentence is written in passive voice.

• Example: Julie was given the apple by me.

An easy way to identify the indirect object is to determine the direct object and then ask a question about “to whom” or “to what.”

• Example: What did I give? I gave the apple. (Direct object)
• Example: To whom did I give the apple? I gave the apple to Julie. (Indirect object)

What is a Complement?

A complement is a word or group of words that provides additional meaning to a subject or object. Adjectives, nouns, pronouns, gerunds, and phrases can all be complements.

• Adjective as complement
  • Example: Julie seemed happy.
• Noun as complement
  • Example: Fernando is a pediatrician.
• Pronoun as complement
  • Example: The culprit was me.
• Gerund as complement
  • Example: His passion is painting.
• Phrase as complement
  • Example: The car’s problem is that the rear driver’s side tire is flat.

What is a Phrase?

A phrase is a group of words that provides extra information beyond what a single word can convey in a sentence. Phrases may contain a subject or a predicate or be part of a subject or a predicate. However, a single phrase cannot contain both a subject and a predicate.

There are many categories of phrases. The parts of speech can each have their own type of phrase. Notice how in each example given below, the phrase provides extra information about its part of speech.

• Noun phrase: The happy baby giggled.
• Pronoun phrase: Who else forgot their math homework?
• Verb phrase: She has been dancing.
• Adverb phrase: The One Ring was destroyed once and for all.
• Adjective phrase: Julie is better than me at chemistry.
• Prepositional phrase: The key fell under the table.
• Conjunctional phrase: I’ll help cook as soon as I get home.
• Interjection phrase: Good grief, I’ll never kick that football.

In the following section, we will examine four types of phrases in detail:

• Gerund phrases
• Prepositional phrases
• Infinitive phrases
• Appositive phrases

Gerund phrase

A gerund phrase is a phrase that provides additional information about a gerund. Gerund phrases take the role of a noun in a sentence.

Gerund phrase as subject

Because a gerund can take the role of a noun, a gerund phrase can function as the complete subject of a sentence.

• Example: Biking all day long made me hungry.

Gerund phrase in predicate

A gerund phrase may appear in the predicate of a sentence.

• Example: I tried biking all day long.

In the above example, the verb of the sentence is the word tried. The gerund phrase biking all day long functions as the direct object of the sentence.

Not gerund phrases: progressive verb phrases and participle phrases

• Progressive verbs end in the suffix -ing but do not have noun qualities. The rules of gerund phrases do not apply to progressive verb phrases.
  • Example: I was biking all day long.

In the above example, was biking is the past progressive form of the verb to bike. The verb phrase does not have any noun qualities.

• Participle phrases are similar to gerund phrases, but they function as adjectives or adverbs, not as nouns. These phrases often require the use of commas.
  • Example: Pedaling with all her might, Julie biked thirty miles that day.
  • Example: Julie, pedaling with all her might, biked thirty miles that day.

In the above examples, the participle phrase pedaling with all her might acts as an adjective that modifies the noun Julie.

Prepositional phrase

Prepositions are words that indicate position or direction. A prepositional phrase is a phrase that provides extra information about a preposition. A prepositional phrase contains a preposition and the object of the preposition.

• Example: The snail crawled onto the leaf.

In the above example, onto is the preposition. Its object is leaf.

Prepositional phrases can function as nouns, complements, adjectives, or adverbs.

Prepositional phrase as noun

A prepositional phrase can fill the role of a noun.

• Example: Under the bridge is where we liked to sit after school was over.

In the above example, Under the bridge functions as a noun and is the subject of the sentence.

Prepositional phrase as complement

A prepositional phrase can fill the role of a complement.

• Example: Our favorite hangout spot is under the bridge.

In the above example, under the bridge functions as the complement of our favorite hangout spot.

Prepositional phrase as adjective

A prepositional phrase can fill the role of an adjective.

• Example: The airplane seat nearest the window is my favorite.

In the above example, nearest the window modifies the noun seat.

Prepositional phrase as adverb

A prepositional phrase can fill the role of an adverb.

• Example: The car drove over the bridge.

In the above example, over the bridge modifies the verb drove.

Infinitive phrase

An infinitive phrase is a phrase that uses the basic dictionary form of a verb preceded by the word to.

• Example: I want to visit Seoul, South Korea.
• Example: They worked to feed and clothe the homeless.

Infinitive phrases can function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.

Infinitive phrase as noun

An infinitive phrase can function as a subject or a direct object in a sentence.

• Example: To stroll the beach is my number one goal this weekend.

In the above example, the infinitive phrase To stroll the beach is the subject of the sentence.

• Example: I play to win.

In the above example, the infinitive phrase to win is the direct object.

Infinitive phrase as adjective

An infinitive phrase can function as an adjective.

• Example: I want someone to love.

In the above example, to love modifies the noun someone.

Infinitive phrase as adverb

An infinitive phrase can function as an adverb.

• Example: They work to feed the homeless.

In the above example, to feed the homeless modifies the verb work.

Appositive

The word appose is an old word that means “to place side by side.” An appositive is a noun or phrase that rewords another term in a sentence, providing extra information.

• Example: Jamie, a poet, is coming to give a guest lecture tomorrow.
• Example: Jamie is coming to give a guest lecture tomorrow.

In the above example, the appositive phrase a poet provides extra information about the noun Jamie. Because the phrase a poet is not crucial to the meaning of the sentence, commas are used to separate it from the rest of the sentence.

Commas, em dashes, and parentheses are all accepted ways to separate an appositive from the rest of its sentence.

• Example: Mia often ate sushi, her favorite food, for dinner.
• Example: Mia often ate sushi—her favorite food—for dinner.
• Example: Mia often ate sushi (her favorite food) for dinner.

When an appositive is crucial to the meaning of a sentence, do not use extra punctuation to separate it from the rest of the sentence. Context often determines whether an appositive is crucial.

Both examples given below can be correct or incorrect depending on context.

• Example: Mia and her sister, Lucy, went out for sushi after work.

The above example implies that Mia only has one sister. In this situation, knowing her name is not crucial to the meaning of the sentence. There is only one possible person her sister is referring to.

• Example: Mia and her sister Lucy went out for sushi after work.

The above example implies that Mia has more than one sister. In this situation, knowing her name is crucial to the meaning of the sentence, as her sister could refer to multiple people.

What is a Clause?

A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate.

There are two main types of clauses:

• Independent clauses
• Dependent clauses

We will also examine two unique categories of dependent clauses:

• Subordinate clauses
• Relative clauses

Independent clause

An independent clause is a group of words that has a subject and a predicate and can function as a complete sentence.

• Example: Fish swim.
• Example: Birds fly. Fish swim.

Two independent clauses can be connected by a semicolon.

• Example: Birds fly; fish swim.

Two independent clauses can also be connected by a comma and a coordinating conjunction.

• Example: Birds fly, and fish swim.
• Example: Birds fly, but fish swim.

Three or more independent clauses can be connected by commas. The final item in the list should follow a coordinating conjunction.

• Example: Birds fly, fish swim, and snakes slither.

Dependent clause

A dependent clause is a group of words that has a subject and a predicate but cannot function as a complete sentence. To function as a sentence, a dependent clause must be connected to an independent clause that fulfills its verbal relationship. A sentence containing both an independent clause and a dependent clause is known as a complex sentence.

• Complex sentence: Nero plays the fiddle while Rome burns.
• Independent clause: Nero plays the fiddle
• Dependent clause: while Rome burns

In the above example, the dependent clause has a subject (Rome) and a predicate (burns). The words Rome burns can function as a complete sentence. However, while Rome burns cannot function as a complete sentence, because the word while establishes that Rome burns is part of a larger verbal relationship.

Use a comma when placing a dependent clause before an independent clause in a sentence.

• Example: While Rome burns, Nero plays the fiddle.

Dependent clauses cannot always be placed before independent clauses in a sentence.

• Correct: She is the woman that I love.
• Incorrect: That I love, she is the woman.

Subordinate clause

A subordinate clause is a dependent clause that contains a subordinating conjunction, such as the word when.

• Complex sentence: I was happy when Jacob came home.
• Independent clause: I was happy
• Dependent clause: when Jacob came home

There are many subordinating conjunctions. Here are a few:

• after
• although
• even though
• if
• once
• until
• when
• while

Relative clause

A relative clause is a dependent clause that contains a relative pronoun, such as the word that.

• Complex sentence: She was the only astrophysicist that he knew.
• Independent clause: She was the only astrophysicist
• Dependent clause: that he knew

Here is a list of relative pronouns:

• who
• whom
• whose
• that
• which

Coordinating Conjunction Fragments 

are word groups that have a subject and a verb and begin with a coordinating conjunction: for,and, nor, but, or, yet, or so (FANBOYS).

• So I had to pack the night before.
• And many people believe that aliens have visited earth.
• But they had some good results.

These word groups are not sentences.  Although they have a subject and a predicate, they do not complete a thought.  If the conjunction is not connecting something, the thought is not complete.

These can be fixed by either removing the conjunction or adding more information. Remember, if you join two complete sentences with a coordinating conjunction, a comma is needed to separate the two.

• My plane left at 5:00 in the morning, so I had to pack the night before.
• However, if there is only one subject or predicate, no comma is used.
• Many people believe in ghosts and that aliens have visited Earth.

Relative clauses are word groups that have a subject and a verb and begin with a relative pronoun:

• whose    that    which     whichever
• who    whoever
• whom    whomever
• what    whatever

Learning the abbreviation WTWW, WW, WW, WW will help to remember these.  These are dependant clauses since they depend upon an independent clause to complete a thought and, therefore, a sentence. Relative pronouns are also conjunctions since they join parts of a sentence.

• That I have always wanted to visit.
• Which are green.
• Wherever I play every day.

They can also be fixed by adding more information.  Remember, when you use the word that, you never use a comma.

• New York is a city that I have always wanted to visit.

However, you may or may not need a comma with who or which. If you need the information to understand the meaning of the sentence, you do not need a comma. If the information is just added in as extra information, you need to indicate this with commas.

• Oranges which are green should not be eaten.
• My guitar, which I play every day, was a gift from my father.

See Commas for more information on necessary (restrictive) and (nonrestrictive) clauses with who, which, and that.

Subordinate clauses are word groups that have a subject and a verb and begin with a subordinating conjunction such as although, because, if, since, when, where, and while.  A subordinate clause fragment, also called subordinating conjunction fragment, leaves the reader wondering what comes next.

• Because it was raining
• When I’m feeling angry
• If I’m feeling blue

These word groups are not sentences.  Although they have a subject and a predicate, they do not complete a thought. For this reason, they are called dependent or subordinate clauses.

They can be fixed by adding more information. Remember, if you begin a sentence with a subordinating conjunction, it is considered introductory words and a comma is needed to separate the subordinate clause from the rest of the sentence.

• When I’m angry, I like to listen to music.

If the subordinating conjunction is in the middle, no comma is used since the words are no longer introducing the main clause.

• I call my best friend if I’m feeling blue.