How to Use Contractions

A contraction is used when two words are joined, leaving out one or two letters. Place an apostrophe in place of the missing letter(s).

• Example: did not – didn’t
• Example: should have – should’ve
• Example: it is – it's

How to Show Possession

When a noun belongs to another noun, use an apostrophe to show possession. There are different rules for possession depending on whether the noun is singular or plural.

Possession for singular nouns

Add an apostrophe and the letter s (’s) to indicate possession in a singular noun.

• Example: The coat belongs to the girl – the girl’s coat
• Example: The shoes belong to Kelly – Kelly’s shoes

Add an apostrophe and the letter s (’s) even when a singular noun ends in s.

• Example: The car belongs to Charles – Charles’s car
• Example: The house belongs to Bill Jones – Bill Jones’s house

Note: Instructors and style guides sometimes accept the use of an apostrophe without an s when a singular noun ends in s (Charles’ car, Bill Jones’ house). However, this style choice is not always accepted, so it is safer to use an apostrophe and an s for all singular nouns.

Possession for plural nouns

If a plural noun does not end in an s, add an apostrophe and the letter s (’s).

• Example: The rights of women – women’s rights
• Example: The department for children – children’s department

If a plural noun ends in an s, add an apostrophe but do not add the letter s.

• Example: The coat belongs to the girls – the girls’ coats
• Example: The house belongs to the Smiths – the Smiths’ house

How to Use the Plural Form of a Lowercase Letter

Use an apostrophe and the letter s (’s) when pluralizing a lowercase letter.

• Example: The book contained a printing error that turned all its h’s into b’s.

Do not use an apostrophe and the letter s (’s) to pluralize uppercase letters.

• Example: Professor Vanya holds multiple PhDs.
• Example: Aiden earned all As in his classes last semester.
• Example: The Ps are my favorite section of the library.

How to Address Problems with Apostrophes

There are some uses of the apostrophe that can be troublesome and confusing. Here are guidelines for some of these common issues.

Do not use an apostrophe to make a noun plural.

• Correct: The dogs ran in the yard.
• Incorrect: The dog’s ran in the yard.
   
• Correct: These books are on sale.
• Incorrect: These book’s are on sale.

Do not use apostrophes to form the plural of an abbreviation or number.

• Correct: EMTs
• Incorrect: EMT’s
   
• Correct: the 1800s
• Incorrect: the 1800’s

Use an apostrophe to show possession for the plural form of a year.

• Example: The 90s’ grunge rock scene is coming back in style.
• Example: The effects of the 1960s’ Civil Rights Movement are still being felt today.

Do not confuse contractions with similar sounding words.

Its and It’s

The word it’s is the contraction of it is or it has.

• Example: It is a beautiful day.
• Example: It’s a beautiful day.
   
• Example: It has been nice to know you.
• Example: It’s been nice to know you.

The word its is the possessive form of it.

• Example: My car needs to have its engine checked.
• Example: Its steering wheel just came off, too.

Who’s and Whose

The word who’s is the contraction of who is.

• Example: Who is coming to the party?
• Example: Who’s coming to the party?

The word whose is the possessive form of who.

• Example: Whose car alarm keeps going off?
• Example: Whose music do you like best?

They’re, Their, and There

The word they’re is the contraction of they are.

• Example: They are going to see the movie.
• Example: They’re going to see the movie.

The word there is the possessive form of they.

• Example: They forgot their keys.

The word there is a demonstrative that shows location.

• Example: I left my glasses over there.

Would’ve, Could’ve, and Should’ve

The words would’ve, could’ve, and should’ve are contractions with the word have. These words are sometimes mistakenly rendered as would of, could of, and should of.

Would of, could of, and should of are considered grammatically incorrect. Always use have or the contracted form ’ve instead.

• Correct: I would have gone to the mall if you’d invited me.
• Correct: I would’ve gone to the mall if you’d invited me.
• Incorrect: I would of gone to the mall if you’d invited me.
   
• Correct: I could have gone directly to college, but I chose to take a gap year first.
• Correct: I could’ve gone directly to college, but I chose to take a gap year first.
• Incorrect: I could of gone directly to college, but I chose to take a gap year first.
   
• Correct: I should have asked how my sister was doing.
• Correct: I should’ve asked how my sister was doing.
• Incorrect: I should of asked how my sister was doing.