What is a Paragraph?

A paragraph is a series of sentences on a specific point or topic. A well written paragraph must have a topic sentence which states the main idea: what the paragraph is about. While some say the topic sentence can be anywhere in the paragraph, it is best to put it as the first sentence in a paragraph. The rest of the sentences in the paragraph support, elaborate, and/or further explain the main idea expressed in the topic sentence.

Paragraphs have varying length depending upon various factors. An average paragraph in an academic essay is about six to eight sentences.

Types of Paragraphs

There are various types of paragraphs such as summaries, abstracts, and answers to questions for a specific assignment. In addition, there are specialized types of paragraphs for various reports such as feasibility studies or performance reports.

The types of paragraphs covered in this lesson are general paragraphs, as would be used in the body of a letter or an academic essay, including general research papers (research essays).

Parts of a Paragraph

Topic Sentence – purpose of a paragraph

Unless you are writing specialized report such as a scientific research paper or a feasibility study that may otherwise show the purpose of a paragraph such as a heading , a well written paragraph must have a topic sentence which states what the paragraph is about.

Whether you are writing a paragraph for a specific assignment, an academic essay, a research paper, or a simple letter, each paragraph should include a topic sentence. The topic sentence should be the first sentence of the paragraph so that the reader knows what the paragraph is about.  The topic sentence in a body paragraph of an essay must be support for the thesis: a reason why the thesis is true or accurate.

The rest of the sentences in the paragraph of an essay support, elaborate, and/or further explain the topic sentence.

Here is an example of a paragraph:

The first sentence is the topic sentence. See how the rest of the sentences support, elaborate, and/or or further explain it.

Almost every aspect of modern life has been improved through convenience provided by technology. From the alarm clock in the morning to the entertainment center at night, everyday life is improved. The automatic coffee maker has the coffee ready at a certain time. Cars or public transportation bring people to work where computers operate at the push of a button. At home, there’s the convenience of washing machines and dryers, dishwashers, air conditioners, and power lawn mowers. Modern technology has made life better with many conveniences.

Everything in this paragraph is about how modern life has been improved through convenience provided by technology.

Unity and Coherence

A paragraph must have unity.

All of the sentences of a particular paragraph must focus on one point to achieve one goal: to support the topic sentence.

A paragraph must have coherence.

The sentences must flow smoothly and logically from one to the next as they support the topic sentence.

The last sentence of the paragraph should restate the topic sentence to help achieve unity and coherence.

Here is an example with information that does not support the topic sentence:

Almost every aspect of modern life has been improved through convenience provided by modern technology. From the alarm clock in the morning to the entertainment center at night, everyday life is improved. The automatic coffee maker has the coffee ready at a certain time. People are more concerned about health issues and good air quality, so they have started walking or riding a bike to work even though they have the option of using a car or public transportation.  There’s the convenience of washing machines and dryers, dishwashers, air conditioners, and power lawn mowers.  Modern technology has made life better with many conveniences.

See how just one non-supporting sentence takes away from the effectiveness of the paragraph in showing how modern conveniences make life better since the unity and coherence are affected. There is no longer unity among all the sentences. The thought pattern is disjointed and the paragraph loses its coherence.

Here’s another example of a paragraph:

Not only has modern technology improved life through convenience, it has improved life through efficiency. The time saved with machines doing most of the work leaves more time for people to develop their personal goals or to just relax. Years ago, when doing laundry could take all day, there wasn’t time left over to read or go to school or even just to take a leisurely walk. Nowadays, people have more time and energy than ever to simply enjoy their lives thanks to the efficiency of modern technology.

Note: See how all the sentences work together to support the point that technology has improved lives through efficiency.

Transitions – Words that Connect

Transitions are words, groups of words, or sentences that connect one sentence to another or one paragraph to another.

They promote a logical flow from one idea to the next.

While they are not needed in every sentence, they are missed when they are omitted since the flow of thoughts becomes disjointed or even confusing.

There are different types of transitions such as the following:

• Time – before, after, during, in the meantime, nowadays
• Space – over, around, under
• Examples – for instance, one example is
• Comparison –  on the other hand, the opposing view
• Consequence – as a result, subsequently

These are just a few examples. The idea is to paint a clear, logical connection between sentences and between paragraphs.

Here’s how transitions help make a paragraph unified and coherent:

Not only has modern technology improved life through convenience, it has improved life through efficiency.  The time saved with machines doing most of the work leaves more time for people to develop their personal goals or to just relax. Years ago, when doing laundry could take all day, there wasn’t time left over to read or go to school or even just to take a leisurely walk. Nowadays, people have more time and energy than ever to simply enjoy their lives thanks to the efficiency of modern technology.

Each part of a paragraph must support the topic sentence. In addition, the sentences must flow logically from one to the other.

See how the following paragraph has ideas that don’t seem to belong:

Growing flowers is fun. The sun rises in the morning and warms the soil. Flowers come in all different sizes, shapes, and colors.  Sometimes, there is not enough rain. Flowers also bloom during different times of the year. Flowers need nutrients to grow strong and beautiful. There are some children who like to pick the flowers. There are different growing seasons in different parts of the country.  Flowers that will grow high should be planted behind those that will not grow as high. Some people let their dog’s leash extend allowing the dog to go into the flower beds which is not very nice. Designing a flower bed has to consider the different times the flowers will bloom. A substitute for rainfall should be planned. It is fun to grow flowers.

Here is a revised version with unity and coherence. See how each sentence is clearly part of the whole which is to show how it is fun to grow flowers.

Growing flowers is fun. Planning the garden is the first step, and it is part of the fun. Flowers must be selected for their size, color, and time of bloom.  Selections should be made so that there is at least one type of flower blooming throughout the season and that taller flowers are behind shorter ones.  Meeting the challenges to assure growth such as with an irrigation system or hand watering and fertilizing when needed is also part of the fun. It’s wonderful to check the garden every day to see the little green sprouts starting to appear. It gives a great sense of accomplishment and joy to see the flowers in bloom. It is fun to grow flowers.

An example of a paragraph from a business letter which does have unity and coherence:

There are several reasons to select my company to do this job. We are a family owned and operated business and have been in business in this county for thirty-five years. In addition to thousands of satisfied customers, we have proudly sponsored many community events and organizations.  All of our employees live in this county, and most have stayed with us for years. We have successfully kept our overhead low and pass those savings onto our customers. By far, we are the best company to complete this project.

Note: See how all the sentences work together to support the point that we are the best company to hire.

Here’s a version of the paragraph which does not have unity and coherence:

I am happy that the warm weather is finally here! It’s been a cold winter. There are several reasons to select my company to do this job. By far, we are the best company to complete this project. I have a large family, and in addition to having Sunday dinners, we work together in the company which has many satisfied customers. Some of my employees take the bus to work, so I am concerned about our public transportation system. We have proudly served our community, and we use cost saving methods to keep prices low.

An example of a paragraph in an inter-office memo:

Beginning January 1, we will have a revised policy concerning new customers. The updated intake form includes additional information, so please be sure to read through and complete each section. Pay particular addition to the additional questions at the bottom as they are now required by the insurance company.  We would like to have e-mail addresses as well. You can assure customers that we will not be sending them solicitations nor giving the list to any other business. Be sure to fill in the information neatly and accurately. It is preferred that the information be entered directly into the computer although we realize there are times when that is not practical and a hard-copy form will have to be completed by hand. Review the instructions on the back page of the form for more details on the revised policy for new customers.

Note: See how all the sentences work together to support the point shown in the topic sentence that modern technology has expanded accessibility.

Closing/Transitional Statements

The last sentence of a paragraph should remind the reader of the point of the paragraph and transition into the next paragraph if there is one. See how the last sentence, for example, in the above paragraph reminds the reader of what the paragraph is about: Review the instructions on the back page of the form for more details on the revised policy for new customers.

Multi-Paragraph Documents

Most paragraphs we see are part of a multi-paragraph document: newspaper and magazine articles, books, business letters and inter-office memorandum, “how-to” documents, and other informational documents. Usually, there is an organization of the paragraphs in a specific way. The opening paragraph generally gives some idea of what the document is about. The middle paragraphs give more details about the specific point. The last paragraph ends the writing, generally by summing up and repeating the point.

There are some context-specific documents that have more clearly defined paragraphs which are something included as sections of the writing.  For example, a feasibility report might have paragraphs as follows: abstract and/or summary, introduction, discussion, conclusion, recommendations.

Paragraphs in Business Letters and Inter-Office Memorandum

Business letters and inter-office memorandums basically have the same organization of the content: an introduction paragraph, paragraphs that prove or further explain, and a concluding paragraph which sums up and repeats the point. A business letter, however, is generally written on company stationery and has the date and address block in the upper left, a Re: line, a salutation such as Dear Mr. Haller (although some are no longer using a formal salutation), and a complimentary closing such as Sincerely. An inter-office memorandum is generally written on plain paper, sometimes with the company logo as part of the template, lines with To:, From:, Date:, and Re: in the upper left, and no complimentary closing.

Paragraphs in Informational Documents and Academic Essays

Informational Documents

This refers to groups of writings that are designed to give information about a topic or position on a topic. While they all include a specific thesis (point), have an introduction and concluding paragraph, and have paragraphs that proof or explain the point, there can be wide variety on where the thesis is expressed and the ancillary information presented that is supplemental to the thesis. These are sometimes called essays.  However, academic essays do have a very specific organizational pattern.

Academic Essays

The introduction paragraph and the concluding paragraph of an essay are different from a general paragraph. An introduction contains general background information on a topic and leads into a thesis statement. The sentences with background information are not really in support of the thesis, but they are relevant and logically flow into the thesis. In other words, there must be unity and coherence in an introduction paragraph as well.

While the body paragraph of an academic is the same as a general paragraph in that they have a topic sentence and sentences that support it, the topic sentence must be a reason why the thesis of the essay. Body paragraphs should be clearly in support for the thesis and not contain any extraneous information.

A concluding paragraph sums up the proof and restates the thesis. Some instructors ask for a statement drawing an implication of the information presented instead of or in addition to a restatement of the thesis. In either case, while a concluding paragraph, as with the introduction paragraph, does not start with a topic sentence and has the rest of the sentences support the topic sentence, the concluding paragraph is similar in that the summary of the proof ties directly into the thesis or statement of general implication. There are no extraneous, off-topic sentences.

Rhetorical Modes as Types of Paragraphs

Narration

Narration is when an author writes as though he or she is telling a story. This mode is used more often in fiction, but it can be used in academic essay writing when the best way to help prove the thesis is by relating a sequence of events.

Description/Definition/Exemplification, and Classification

These closely related modes use specific information about certain aspects of a thing, event, or situation. The terms speak for themselves.  Description uses details describing the thing, event, or situation. Definition defines it. Exemplification uses examples, and classification uses categories.

• The rose was red. (description)
• A rose is a flower with soft petals and a beautiful, brief bloom. (definition)
• Roses comes in a variety of colors such as red, yellow, and white. (example)
• Roses come in a variety of types including miniature, climbing, hybrid tea, and floribunda. (classification)

Compare/Contrast

Comparing and/or contrasting one thing, event, or situation is a helpful way to show what it is and isn't. If someone were arguing that a particular type of sneaker was the best, it would be useful to compare to others for support, durability, and price.

Cause and/or Effect

This mode is useful in arguing for or again an action. Showing the cause and/or effect of an action can be persuasive. For example, if someone were arguing for an increase in the speed limit, statistics showing an increase in fatalities where limits are higher would be a persuasive argument.

Persuasion/Argumentation

In a sense, the ultimate intent of all communication is persuasion. Argumentation is one way of talking about debate. We think of arguing as what we do among friends or family members — and it is — but there is a formal way to argue to prove our point. Actually, we can learn how to better have civil arguments which will be constructive. In thinking about persuasion/argumentation as a rhetorical mode, it refers to a type of writing that is clearly arguing in support of a specific point.

To Review

1. A paragraph is a series of sentences on a particular point.
2. A paragraph should begin with a topic sentence which states that point.
3. Sentences with supporting details such as examples should follow.
4. A paragraph must have unity and coherence where the sentences smoothly and logically flow from one to the next and stay focused on supporting the topic sentence.
5. Transition words and phrases should be used to connect sentences and paragraphs for unity and coherence.
6. Paragraphs that are part of multi-paragraph documents serve specific functions.
7. The special types of paragraphs in business letters and inter-office memorandums.
8. The special types of paragraphs in informational documents and academic essays.
9. The special types of paragraphs in informational documents and academic essays.

Overview

In a way, these academic essays are like a court trial. The attorney, whether prosecuting the case or defending it, begins with an opening statement explaining the background and telling the jury what he or she intends to prove (the thesis statement). Then, the attorney presents witnesses for proof (the body of the paragraphs). Lastly, the attorney presents the closing argument (concluding paragraph).

The Introduction and Thesis

There are a variety of approaches regarding the content of the introduction paragraph such as a brief outline of the proof, an anecdote, explaining key ideas, and asking a question. In addition, some textbooks say that an introduction can be more than one paragraph. The placement of the thesis statement is another variable depending on the instructor and/or text. The approach used in this lesson is that an introduction paragraph gives background information leading into the thesis which is the main idea of the paper, which is stated at the end.

The background in the introductory paragraph consists of information about the circumstances of the thesis. This background information often starts in the introductory paragraph with a general statement which is then refined to the most specific sentence of the essay, the thesis. Background sentences include information about the topic and the controversy. It is important to note that in this approach, the proof for the thesis is not found in the introduction except, possibly, as part of a thesis statement which includes the key elements of the proof. Proof is presented and expanded on in the body.

Some instructors may prefer other types of content in the introduction in addition to the thesis. It is best to check with an instructor as to whether he or she has a preference for content. Generally, the thesis must be stated in the introduction.

The thesis is the position statement. It must contain a subject and a verb and express a complete thought. It must also be defensible. This means it should be an arguable point with which people could reasonably disagree. The more focused and narrow the thesis statement, the better a paper will generally be.

If you are given a question in the instructions for your paper, the thesis statement is a one-sentence answer taking a position on the question.

If you are given a topic instead of a question, then in order to create a thesis statement, you must narrow your analysis of the topic to a specific controversial issue about the topic to take a stand. If it is not a research paper, some brainstorming (jotting down what comes to mind on the issue) should help determine a specific question.

If it is a research paper, the process begins with exploratory research, which should show the various issues and controversies. It should, ultimately, lead to the specific question. Then, the research becomes focused on the question, which should lead to taking a position on the question.

These methods of determining a thesis are still answering a question. It’s just that you pose a question to answer for the thesis.  Here is an example.

Suppose, one of the topics you are given to write about is America’s National Parks. Books have been written about this subject. In fact, books have been written just about a single park. As you are thinking about it, you may realize how there is an issue about balancing between preserving the wilderness and allowing visitors. The question would then be Should visitors to America’s National Parks be regulated in order to preserve the wilderness?

One thesis might be "There is no need for regulations for visiting America’s National Parks to preserve the wilderness."

Another might be "There should be reasonable regulations for visiting America’s National Parks in order to preserve the wilderness."

Finally, avoid using expressions that announce, “Now I will prove…” or “This essay is about…” Instead of telling the reader what the paper is about, a good paper simply proves the thesis in the body. Generally, you shouldn’t refer to your paper in your paper.

Here is an example of a good introduction with the thesis:

Not too long ago, everyday life was filled with burdensome, time-consuming chores that left little time for much more than completing these tasks. People generally worked from their homes or within walking distance to their homes and rarely traveled far from them. People were limited to whatever their physical capacities were. All this changed dramatically as new technologies developed. Modern technology has most improved our lives through convenience, efficiency, and accessibility.

Note how the background is general and leads up to the thesis. No proof is given in the background sentences about how technology has improved lives.

Moreover, notice that the thesis is the last sentence of the introduction. It is a defensible statement.

A reasonable person could argue the opposite position: Although modern technology has provided easier ways of completing some tasks, it has diminished the quality of life since people have to work too many hours to acquire these gadgets, have developed health problems as a result of excess use, and have lost focus on what is really valuable in life.

Quick Tips

• The introduction opens the essay and gives background information about the thesis.
• Do not introduce your supporting points (proof) in the introduction unless they are part of the thesis; save these for the body.
• The thesis is placed at the end of the introductory paragraph.
• Don’t use expressions like “this paper will be about...” or “I intend to show…”

For more information on body paragraphs and supporting evidence, see Proving a Thesis – Evidence and Proving a Thesis – Logic, and Logical Fallacies and Appeals in Related Pages on the right sidebar.

Body

Body paragraphs give proof for the thesis. They should have one proof point per paragraph expressed in a topic sentence. The topic sentence is usually found at the beginning of each body paragraph and, like a thesis, must be a complete sentence. Each topic sentence must be directly related to and support the argument made by the thesis.

After the topic sentence, the rest of the paragraph should go on to support this one proof with examples and explanation. It is the details that support the topic sentences in the body paragraphs that make the arguments strong.

If the thesis statement stated that technology improved the quality of life, each body paragraph should begin with a reason why it has improved the quality of life. This reason is called a topic sentence. Following are three examples of body paragraphs that provide support for the thesis that modern technology has improved our lives through convenience, efficiency, and accessibility:

     Almost every aspect of our lives has been improved through convenience provided by modern technology. From the sound of music from an alarm clock in the morning to the end of the day being entertained in the convenience of our living room, our lives are improved. The automatic coffee maker has the coffee ready at a certain time. Cars or public transportation bring people to work where computers operate at the push of a button. At home, there’s the convenience of washing machines and dryers, dishwashers, air conditioners, and power lawn mowers. Modern technology has made life better with many conveniences.

     Not only has technology improved our lives through convenience, it has improved our lives through efficiency. The time saved by machines doing most of the work leaves more time for people to develop their personal goals or to just relax. Years ago, when doing laundry could take all day, there wasn’t time left over to read or go to school or even just to take a leisurely walk. Nowadays, people have more time and energy than ever to simply enjoy their lives and pursue their goals thanks to the efficiency of modern technology.

     Accessibility to a wide range of options has been expanded through modern technology. Never before could people cross a continent or an ocean in an afternoon. Travel is not the only way technology has created accessibility. Software which types from voice commands has made using computers more accessible for school or work. People with special needs have many new options thanks to modern technology such as special chairs or text readers. Actually, those people who need hearing aids as a result of normal aging have access to continued communication and enjoyment of entertainment they did not previously have. There are many ways technology has improved lives through increased accessibility.

Notice how these proof paragraphs stick to one proof point introduced in the topic sentences. These three paragraphs, not only support the original thesis, but go on to give details and explanations which explain the proof point in the topic sentence.

Quick Tips on Body Paragraphs

• The body of your essay is where you give your main support for the thesis.
• Each body paragraph should start with a topic sentence that is directly related to and supports the thesis statement.
• Each body paragraph should also give details and explanations that further support the poof point for that paragraph.
• Don’t use enumeration such as first, second, and third. The reader will know by the topic sentence that it is a new proof point.
• See Proving the Thesis in Related Pages on the right sidebar for more information on proof.

The Conclusion

Instructors vary of what they expect in the conclusion; however, there is general agreement that conclusions should not introduce any new proof points, should include a restatement of the thesis, and should not contain any words such as “In conclusion.”

Some instructors want only a summary of the proof and a restatement of the thesis. Some instructors ask for a general prediction or implication of the information presented without a restatement of thesis. Still others may want to include a restatement along with a general prediction or implication of the information presents. Be sure to review assignment instructions or check with instructor.  If your assignment instructions don’t specify, just sum up the proof and restate the thesis.

Example which sums up proof and restates thesis:

Modern technology has created many conveniences in everyday from waking up to music to having coffee ready to getting to work and doing a day’s work. The efficiency provided by technology gives people more time to enjoy life and pursue personal development, and the accessibility has broadened options for travel, school, and work. Modern technology has improved our lives through convenience, efficiency, and accessibility.

See how the thesis statement was restated. The two major arguments about the possible locations proven to be incorrect were also included to remind the reader of the major proof points made in the paper.

Example which makes a general prediction or implication of the information presented:

Modern technology has created many conveniences in everyday life from waking up to music to having coffee ready to getting to work and doing a day’s work. The efficiency provided by technology gives people more time to enjoy life and pursue personal development, and the accessibility has broadened options for travel, school, and work. Without it, everyday life would be filled with burdensome tasks and be limited to our neighborhood and our physical capacity.

Here’s an example of a conclusion with a general prediction or implication statement with a restatement of thesis.

Modern technology has created many conveniences in everyday life from waking up to music to having coffee ready to getting to work and doing a day’s work. The efficiency provided by technology gives people more time to enjoy life and pursue personal development, and the accessibility has broadened options for travel, school, and work. Without it, everyday life would be filled with burdensome tasks and be limited to our neighborhood and our physical capacity. Modern technology has improved our lives through convenience, efficiency, and accessibility.

Quick Tips for Conclusions

1. The conclusion brings the essay to an end and is typically the shortest paragraph.
2. It is important to not introduce new ideas or information here.
3. Unless otherwise specified in your assignment, just sum up the proof and restate the conclusion.
4. Some instructors may want the concluding paragraph to contain a general prediction or observation implied from the information presented.

Rhetorical Modes

Rhetoric is the art of persuasion. Rhetorical modes are ways of using language with a specific focus. Narration, for example, tells a story or a sequence of events. A narrative essay tells a story.

Other rhetorical modes focus on describing, defining, using examples (exemplification), or classifying as the primary purpose. Comparing and contrasting simply compares one thing to another showing the differences as well as the similarities.

In a cause and/or effect paper, the causes and/or effects of a situation are the focus.

A persuasive or argumentative paper proves a position on a controversial issue.

Sometimes, instructors assign essays requiring a specific mode such as defining something or discussing the causes of a problem. These are considered useful ways to develop the particular skill such as looking closely at something to describe it or finding ways to define an object or situation.

More commonly, however, a writing assignment does not require a specific mode; these strategies are used as appropriate within an essay or other writing. For example, a paper arguing that pesticides are harmful might include information defining and describing various pesticides. It could include classifying them by potential harm and using examples of the types of pesticides. It could have information on the effects of particular pesticides.

It can be argued that all papers, regardless of the primary rhetorical strategy used, are persuasive or argumentative since all writing ultimately is to prove something – even if it is only the legitimacy of one’s feelings such as in a reaction paper or creative writing. Most writing blend the uses of rhetorical styles.

What is an outline?

An outline of an academic essay contains the thesis and brief information about the proof paragraphs. 

The proof paragraphs are the paragraphs between the introduction paragraph and the concluding paragraph. Proof paragraphs contain evidence, also called supporting details, that the thesis is accurate.

An outline is like a skeleton of the essay. Outlines for academic essays and research papers that are not reports on research or other specialized report have a very specific organization. Here is a sample for a 500-word essay. The number of body paragraphs will vary, generally from two to four, for a 500-word essay.

Thesis and Supporting Details (Body Paragraphs)

Thesis: A one-sentence answer takes a position on the research question or, if assigned a topic and not a question, the thesis is a one-sentence statement taking a position on a controversial aspect of the topic. The thesis must be a statement, not a question. The thesis must be a sentence, not a topic. See Thesis in Related Links on the right sidebar.

I. One reason why your thesis is accurate.

A.  Supporting detail

B.  Supporting detail

II. Second reason why your thesis is accurate.

A.  Supporting detail

B.  Supporting detail

III.  Third reason why your thesis is accurate.

A. Supporting detail

B. Supporting detail

Concluding paragraph sums up proof and restates thesis and/or draws an implication from the information presented as to significance depending upon instructions.

For a shorter essay, possibly only two body paragraphs will be needed. For a longer essay, you may need more proof paragraphs.  

Note that the outline begins with the thesis statement. What you intend to put into the introduction paragraph as background information leading up the thesis is not part of the outline.

Note that I, II, and III represent what will go into the body (proof paragraphs).

Note that the outline does not ordinarily include a reference to the concluding paragraph even though we have listed it above, but all essays must have a concluding paragraph.

How outlining helps in writing an essay

There are three ways that an outline can help you in writing your essay.

1. It helps to organize your thought or research, if you are writing a research paper, into a writing plan.
2. It can also help you decide what information should be included and which information is not really needed.
3. Finally, it can also help you manage the large amount of information you need to sort in order to write a well supported paper.

Once you have an outline, you can actually write the essay from the outline. Just open the file, delete the word Thesis and the paragraph numbering, add background information before the thesis, develop details for each proof paragraph, and write the concluding paragraph.

How to create an outline

An outline must start with a thesis statement: a one-sentence statement (not a question) taking a position answering a research question (if given a research question to answer) or taking a position on a controversial aspect of a topic (if given a topic on which to write a paper).

Sometimes, you know your position and can easily start with a thesis. If you also know your reasons why you are taking that position, you can simply list your reasons (I, II, …).

At other times, you may not be sure and have to do some thinking or research on the issue. Let’s take the question “Why don’t some Americans vote?” If this is not a research paper, you might have to do some brainstorming before you can come up with a thesis: a one-sentence answer to the question. If this is a research essay (research paper), you will do some research. Creating a working bibliography (a list of sources) or doing a synthesis activity can be very helpful for gathering ideas.

Whether you are required to do research or not, the first step is determining a thesis statement.  From brainstorming and/or research, you may have identified the several reasons some people don’t vote as follows:

Age restrictions

Believe that the system is fixed

Believe nothing will ever change

Don’t know where to go to vote

Physically disabled

Don’t know where to register

Happy with the status quo

Too young

Believe their vote doesn’t count

Can’t vote because of incarceration

Don’t know when to vote

Not an important part of upbringing/culture

Felony conviction

Don’t know what identification is needed

Illegal status

Receiving false information about where to vote

Now, we have to cluster these points into categories so that they can be discussed in an organized way in the essay. We can see that there are some general reasons such as legal barriers, confusion about how to register or where to vote, and lack of concern or interest where people just don’t think voting would change anything.

I.   Lack of concern or interest

II.  Confusion

III. Legal barriers

Looking over the notes that you made from your brainstorming or research, the next step is to eliminate duplications and group ideas under the categories. Depending on the assignment length, you don’t necessarily have to include everything you find.

For example:

Age restrictions - proof paragraph   III

Believe that the system is fixed - proof paragraph I

Believe nothing will ever change - proof paragraph I

Don’t know where to go to vote - proof paragraph  II

Physically disabled - proof paragraph II

Don’t know where to register - proof paragraph  II

Happy with the status quo - proof paragraph I

Too young - proof paragraph - proof paragraph III

Believe their vote doesn’t count - proof paragraph  I

Can’t vote because of incarceration - proof paragraph III

Don’t know when to vote - proof paragraph II

Not an important part of upbringing/culture - proof paragraph I

Felony conviction - proof paragraph III

Don’t know what identification is needed - proof paragraph   II

Illegal status - proof paragraph III

Receiving false information about where to vote - proof paragraph II

Now you have a rough outline. You have your three major causes and some details that support each. The next step is to make a solid thesis.

The most important part of your paper is the thesis. A good thesis clearly answers your research question and will provide guidance to the reader about the direction and scope of your paper. Make sure that your thesis is a defensible point that others could reasonably disagree. For this paper a reasonable thesis could be: Three major reasons that Americans do not vote are apathy, confusion, and legal barriers.

Next it is time to think about the body of your essay. Since the thesis very clearly shows the three main points, you can use these along with the grouped details you sorted earlier. As you are making your outline you may discover that you have more ideas than you can fit into your paper’s length or that you have gone beyond the scope of your topic. If so, feel free to remove some ideas. For example, because you have many different types of ideas listed under legal barriers, you may wish to remove the weakest or least supported detail.

Some instructors also require that you include a concluding statement. Remember that this statement should simply be a restatement of your thesis and should never introduce new ideas or begin a new discussion. 

This is an acceptable outline to the research questions we’ve developed here:

Your Name

Your Instructor’s Name

Course Title

Day Month Year

Outline

Thesis: Three major reasons that Americans do not vote are apathy, confusion, and legal barriers.

I.  Lack of concern or interest

A.  Disbelief in the system

1.  One vote doesn’t matter

2.  Voting is tampered with

B.  Social/culturally not valued

C.  Satisfaction with the status quo

II.  Confusion

A.  Location

1.  Where to register

2.  Where to vote

B.  When to vote

C.  What documents are needed

III.  Legal barriers

A.  Incarceration

B.   Conviction of a felony

C.  Immigration status

Concluding paragraph:  Sum up proof and restate thesis and/or draw an implication from the information presented showing the significance depending upon your instructions.

Note that this outline has three support details for each reason your thesis is right (each proof point – I, II, III).  Sections I, II, and III each represent one body (proof) paragraph.  Each body paragraph in the essay must begin with a topic sentence that is a reason your thesis is accurate.  This may vary from essay to essay.  What is described here is more like a scratch outline or topic outline which gives just the general ideas.  A formal outline would include detailed sentences and subsections. These are called sentence outlines.  In a sentence outline, the sentence next to each I, II, and III must be a topic sentence which clearly expresses what point that shows the thesis is right will be shown in the paragraph.  

See Related Pages on the right sidebar for more information.

Unity and Coherence

Like all effective writing, essays must have unity.  They must clearly stay focused on one purpose: proving the thesis.  All the sentences in each paragraph and each paragraph must work together to achieve that purpose.  It is critical for each sentence in each paragraph to start with a topic sentence that states a reason why the thesis is right and that the rest of the sentences in the paragraph support that topic sentence.

Essays must have coherence.  Each sentence must flow smoothly and logically into the next.  Each paragraph must flow smoothly and logically into the next.  Words and word groups called transitions must be used to link one sentence to the next and one paragraph to the next.

See Unity and Coherence in Essays in Related Pages on the right side bar for more information.

Word Use (Appropriate Language)

Generally speaking, use of Standard English vocabulary and grammar is expected.  These types of papers should not sound as though you were talking casually to a friend.  Don’t use slang, for example, such as ok.  Also, while we use second person (you, your) in informal speech, formal academic writing should not use second person since the reference is not specific.  Here’s an example. You should know where your children are.  The reader may not have young children or any children at all.  Here’s an example with clear reference.  Parents of young children should know where their children are.

Instructors will vary about accepting the use of first person (I, me, my, we, us, our) in essay writing.  While first person may be appropriate in journal writing or reaction papers, typically, instructors will require third person (not first or second) in formal essays and research essays. Be aware of requirements for any particular assignment.

Formal academic essays should not include sentences that refer to yourself or the paper.  Don’t use statements such as “In the opinion of this writer (referring to yourself)….” or “This paper will show….”

For more information on language use, see Appropriate Language in Related Pages on the right sidebar. 

Purpose

The purpose of a literary analysis essay is to carefully examine and sometimes evaluate a work of literature or an aspect of a work of literature. Examining the different elements of a piece of literature including plot, character, setting, point of view, irony, symbolism, and style to see how the author develops a theme is not an end in itself but rather a process to help you better appreciate and understand the work of literature as a whole. The focus of a literary analysis essay is as expansive as the writers’ interests. For example, a short story analysis might include identifying a particular theme and then showing how the writer suggests that theme through the point of view of the story. It is important to remember that literary analysis does not merely demonstrate a particular literary element. The focus is explaining how that element is meaningful or significant to the work as a whole. See Essay Organization in Related Pages on the right side bar for more information.

Close Reading

Close reading is a deep analysis of how a literary text functions; it is both a reading process and something you include in a literary analysis paper. When you read a text paying specific attention to certain literary elements, looking for particular patterns, or following the development of a particular character, you are practicing close reading. Likewise, when you watch a film with a particular emphasis on a certain element, you are doing a close reading. Of course, when one writes an essay that teases out a certain element, this is the beginning of a close reading. Like literary analysis more generally, close reading is not a means in and of itself. Close reading helps inform the larger meaning or import of a work.

Literary analysis involves examining the components of a literary text, which allows us to focus on small parts of the text, and clues to help us understand the work as a whole. The process of close reading should produce questions. When you begin to answer these questions, you are ready to participate thoughtfully in class discussions or write a literary analysis paper. Close reading is a process of finding as much information as you can in order form to as many questions as you can.

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Abstract words –

words that do not refer to tangible, specific items

Act –

section of a play which generally includes more than one scene

Action –

the events that occur in the piece of literature

Allegorical figures –

the symbolic character representing something in an allegory such as the character Faith representing religious faith in “Young Goodman Brown”

Allegorical framework –

the overall organization of an allegory

Allegory –

a pattern of using symbols in prose or poetry to tell a story in a story

Alliteration –

the repetition of sounds in the beginnings of word; front rhyme

Allusion–

a reference to an historical event, aspect of culture, character or content in a piece of literature, or other widely known type of information to convey a feeling, idea, or image; serves to convey information using few words

Analyze –

review critically considering possibility of author bias, accuracy and completeness of information presented, use of language to convey message and influence interpretation, and  implications of information presented

Anaphora –

repetition of word or words at the beginning of lines or stanzas

Ancient Greek Theater (Dionysus, Sophocles, Euripides) –

the presentation of drama and comedy dating back about 400-500 BC to Sophocles and Euripides in Ancient Greece.

Ancient Literature –

all written stories, poems, histories, and dramas from the surviving texts from about 2800 BC to about 500 AD

Ancient Poetry –

poetry created before the late 500s AD having roots in an oral tradition of creating and performing poetry verbally. Surviving poetry includes love poem from Ancient Sumeria, poetic verses in ancient religious texts including the Bible and Koran, and epics such as the Iliad and Odyssey.

Anecdotes –

short, amusing, true events about a person that relate a bigger truth about life than the specific incident

Anglo-Saxon era –

poetry created from the beginning of the Middle Ages (late 500s AD) into the end of the Middle Ages (mid-1400s) usually associated with tales of heroic deeds and non-romantic love

Antagonist –

the forces against the protagonist; could be another character, a force of nature, or an organization, or other entity or situation which creates opposition to protagonist

Apostrophe –

where the speaker speaks to a dead or non-present person

Approximate rhyme –

near rhyme

Archetypal images – 

images that are generally accepted as representing something such as the Statue of Liberty representing freedom and opportunity

Arrangement of events –

how the events are structured in a plot; may be chronological, start in the middle of things (in medias res), or as flashbacks

Asides –

where a character makes a comment to the audience which is supposedly not heard by the other characters; used in drama

Assonance –

use of vowel sounds for rhyming

Assumptions –

guesses; information that is not based on evidence

Atmosphere –

the general feeling of the surroundings that is created in the work such as peaceful or tragic; slightly different from mood which is the emotional reaction in the reader to the atmosphere although mood and atmosphere are sometimes used interchangeably.

Aubade –

a lyric poem about morning or the rising sun

Auditory imagery –

the creation of an image of sound

Autobiography –

a factual story written by a person on his or her own life

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Ballad stanza –

a stanza of four lines (quatrain) with the second and fourth lines rhyming

Ballad –

a narrative poem telling a story a person or event often about love usually told in rhymed stanzas and which includes a repeated refrain.  Ballads are often sung.

Beast fable –

a fable that has animals with human qualities as characters

Beat poets –

a movement beginning in the late 1940s where poets turned to use of psychogenic drugs for mind expansion and where social and political criticism was a common theme.

Biography –

a factual story written about a person by a another person

Black Arts Movement –

a movement beginning in the 1960s where poets focused on social and political situation of African-Americans.

Black Mountain poets –

a movement during the 1930s starting in Black Mountain, North Carolina which stressed the process of writing instead of the completed poem

Blank verse –

unrhymed iambi pentameter

Cacophony –

unrhymed or discordant sounds

Caesura –

a pause or stop in the middle of a verse

Capture narrative –

a journal kept by a person who was captured and held against his or her will and forced to live in another culture; generally associated with stories white people have written about being captured and living with the Indians in early American history

Caricatures –

a character presented with an exaggeration of prominent features; a type of stock character

Carpe diem –

“seize the day”; sometimes, a theme in a fiction or poem

Character analysis –

the analysis of a character’s personality based on the behavior described in the work of literature; may be described in everyday language such as selfish, kind, thoughtful, or mean or in psychological terms such as having a narcissistic personality disorder or depressed.

Character –

a person in a piece of literature

Chivalric romance –

a romance popular from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance involving the romantic exploits of chivalric heroes, men who lived by the Code of Chivalry

Chorogos –

the leader of the chorus

Chorus –

in staged performances, a group of “townspeople” who articulate different perspectives; from the Greek chorus

Chronological order –

the presentation of events in the order they occurred in time

Classical Greek Drama –

the period from about 550 BC to 323 BC highlighted by dramatists such as Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides where the art forms of tragedy and comedy began.

Cliché –

a worn-out phrase purporting to tell some general truth which no longer has meaning because of his overuse

Climax –  

the highest point of conflict; the point at which the action begins to fall to resolution (denouement)

Closed form (fixed form) –

poetry which follows a pattern of sounds, rhyme, or meter

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Colloquialisms –

non-standard or non-grammatical use of language in everyday speech

Colonnade –

a line of pillars with a roof behind the skene in Ancient Greek Theater

Comedy of manners –

a comedy which makes fun of the manners or customs of a specific segment of the society; uses exaggeration

Comedy –

a form of literature originating in the plays of the Classical Greek era which include a theme of new life often through a marriage; though to have evolved from the aspect of the rebirth of the god in the Dionysian rituals

Commercial literature –

literature written to appeal to popular audiences and not written with any deeper meaning to be conveyed

Common measure –

a ballad stanza generally rhyming in alternating pairs

Concrete poem –

a poem whose words or letters are laid out on the page to reflect the theme of the poem.

Concrete words –

words that name something that can be seen, touched, heard, or otherwise experienced through the senses

Confessional poems –

a movement beginning in the 1950s where the subject of poems were the very personal experiences of the poet beyond just a yearning for love or a specific emotional reaction

Conflict –

the friction between the goals of the protagonist (the main character – doesn’t have to be the “good” character) and the forces against the protagonist, called the antagonist

Connotation –

the understood or implied meaning of a word as opposed to the literal meaning such as the word home which has more meaning than just where a person lives.

Consonance –

use of consonants for rhyming

Conventional symbols –

symbols with a generally understood meaning across cultures with similar usages such as the various road signs or even computer icons

Conventional theme –

a theme topic that has been commonly used such as loss of innocence

Conventional word order –

subject – verb – object along with any modifying words adjacent to the words modified

Couplet –

a poem or stanza of two line

Crime fiction –

a type of fiction whose plot revolves around solving a crime

Cultural context –

the consideration of the cultural setting in order to do a character analysis such as the pre-Women’s Movement in America in a rural community in the 1920s or 1930s.

Cultural setting –

the ethnic, religious, or other setting relating to culture such as sociological

Denotation –

the dictionary definition of a word

Deus ex machina –

a plot contrivance to unexpectedly save a character from a seemingly inescapable, problematic situation often associated with a divine intervention; first used in Ancient Greek and Roman theatre where mechanical devices were used, such as a pulley to lower a god or goddess onto the set to take the character back into the heavens

Dialogue –

a conversation between or among characters

Diction –

the way words are written or spoken such an formal or informal

Drama –

a form of literature presented where parts are written for actors to perform and the action is revealed primarily through the dialogue of the characters and the action includes high emotional content; the modern usage includes television and film

Dramatic irony (tragic irony) –

an irony created when the audience knows something a character does not know

Dramatic monologue –

a lyric poem where the speaker expresses strong emotions or ideas to silent listeners.

Dramatic poetry –

a poem that almost entirely uses dialgue between characters

Dynamic character –

a character that changes during the story

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Elegy –

a lyric poem which mourns the death of a particular person

Elizabethan Theater –

developed during the 1500, a form of theater which where plays were performs in the courtyards of inns and evolved into a highly sophisticated form of theater with elaborate theaters; includes Shakespearean plays

End-stopped line –

a pause at the end of a line of verse

Enjambment/run-on line –

continuation of a thought or sentence onto a new line

Epic –

a narrative which tells a story of a great adventure or battle and which involves humans of exceptional stature such as kings who often have superior strength or skills or includes gods. The results of the adventure or battle or war has drastic consequences beyond the fate of the participants often for an entire country or kingdom

Epigram –

a short clever poem making a pointed, sometimes paradoxical, observation

Epiphany –

the sudden insight a character has about him or herself, another character, or the situation

Episodia –

episodes or scenes following the parodos where the actors play out the conflict.

Epithet –

words used to describe or characterize a person or a thing such as wine dark sea in wine dark sea.

Euphony –

good or pleasing sound

Evaluate –

form a judgment as to information provided on content

Exposition –

a part of the fiction (or or drama or poem) which introduces the characters, settings, and conflict

Expressionism –

a literary movement in the early 1900s which focused on finding and expressing an inner or spiritual reality rather than portraying an actual external reality.

Expressionistic stage setting –

the creation of scenery, costumes, props, and/or lighting in an exaggerated way that reflects the theme or mood of the play such as drab dark colors and lighting to show the depressed mood of the characters

Extended metaphor –

direct comparison which is repeated in the poem; more commonly used in an epic poem where the same comparison is used throughout

Extended simile – 

comparison using the word like or as which is repeated in the poem; more commonly used in an epic poem where the same comparison is used throughout

Eye rhyme –

a similarity in spelling between words that are pronounced differently

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Fables –

a short tale used for teaching a lesson which uses animals, objects, or nature

Facts –

the truth; information based on evidence

Fairy tales –

stories that include supernatural creatures such as fairies or magicians

Falling action –

the action following the climax ending in resolution (denouement)

Falling meter –

movement from stressed to unstressed meter

Fantasy –

a fiction which includes some aspect or situation that does not fall into the understood rules of physics, scientific possibility, or reality

Farce –

a form of literature which uses a situation more than characters to create humor; usually involve slapstick – an exaggerated action such as falling over a chair or a long-played effort at what should be simple such as placing a carton on a shelf; silly, light-hearted, not cynical or satiric.

Fiction –

a created series of characters and events that has not actually happened

Fictionalize –

to create a fiction from an actual event

Figurative language –

language that is used to mean some other or something more than it says; language that is used in a non-literal way

Figurative level –

the non-literal level; the place where the story behind the story is told

Figures of speech –

various ways speech is used figuratively

First-person narrator (first-person point of view) – 

a story told from the viewpoint of the author of the story as a character in the story using the word I to tell the story; may be omniscient (all knowing) or limited (knows only information from that character’s perspective).

Flash fiction –

a type of short story less than 1000 words

Flashbacks –

a technique used to show events that previous occurred by interrupting the present action and going back to previous events; generally used when a story starts in medias res (in the middle of things) such as where a scene opens during a trial and then some of the previous action leading up to the trial is told.

Flat character –

a character described with only one or two personality traits; a superficial character

Foil –

a character created as a contrast to another character as a way of focusing attention on the traits of that other character such as a character taking an unethical approach in order to focus attention on another character taking the ethical approach.

Folk tales –

stories or legends that are about or from a culture or group of people (folk)

Foreshadowing –

a literary device that gives a hint about what is going to occur

Form (poetic form) –

poetry has two forms: narrative which tells a story and lyric which expression an emotion or idea

Formal diction –

the use of words following rules of grammar and Standard English

General words –

non-specific words

Genre –

categories of literature: fiction, poetry and drama

Geographical setting –

the town, state, country, or other geographical place

Globe Playhouse –

an elaborate theater built in 1599 which includes various sections: hell, heaven, rear stage, music gallery, and huts

Groundlings –

the commoners who stood and watched the plays in the courtyard presentations

Gustatory imagery –

the creation of an image of taste

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Haiku –

a form of Japanese verse with three lines which are not rhymed and which have five, seven, and five syllables usually involving some aspect of nature.

Harlem Renaissance –

a movement during the 1920s starting in Harlem which focused on Black culture

Heroic couplet –

two lines of rhymed verse in iambic pentameter; generally used in epic poems

Hip-hop –

musical verse which uses rhyme, repetition of sounds and phases

Historical setting –

the moment in history where the action occurs

History –

the actual events

Horror fiction –

a type of fiction that includes an event or events that are very frightening and which may include fantasy or science fiction

Hubris –

arrogance; an attribute where a character (or a person) has an exaggerated sense of him or herself or his or her importance

Hyperbole –

saying more than what is meant; exaggeration

Iambic pentameter –

a common type of pattern of sounds and rhythm used in poetry created by pairing ten syllables for each line into five pairs. Commonly used by Shakespeare in his sonnets

Imagery –

the creation of sensory images through words

Imaginative literature –

literature created by an author’s imagination to convey some personal feeling or observation or message

Imagism –

a poetic movement beginning in the early 1900s where poets began experimenting with open verse and focused on the poet’s response to a situation or object stressing concrete imagery

Imperfect rhyme –

close but not exact rhyme; near rhyme; approximate rhyme

In medias res –

Latin expression meaning “in the middle of things”; an arrangement of events where the story starts somewhere in the middle of the action and then goes forward giving information about what happened before through narration, dialogue, or flashbacks.

Informal diction –

the use words with slang, colloquialisms, and non-Standard English

Initiation theme –

a theme about being initiated into something new

Interpretative literature –

literature intended to say more than just the story on a larger issue and to be interpreted; literature that can have more than one meaning

Inverted sequence –

an order of words that is not conventional

Ironic title –

a title which contains irony often helping to reveal theme

Irony –

created when  there is a discrepancy between an expectation and an actuality

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Kabuki dramas –

Japanese dance drama characterized by ornate costumes and make-up

Kinetic imagery –

an image which creates a sense of motion or movement such as the wind in the trees

Limerick  – 

a type of poem, usually humorous, consisting of five lines where the first, second,and fifth lines rhyme with each other and the third and fourth lines, which are shorter, form arhymed couplet.

Limited omniscient –

a limited omniscient narrator only knows about the story and characters from a limited perspective such as one of the characters who does not know everything

Line –

a line of poetry is what is written on one line; not necessarily a sentence

Literary symbols –

symbols that are used within a piece of literature to represent a person, object, or situation in that piece of literature such as pink ribbons representing the purity and innocence of a character who is wearing them.

Literary canon –

a collection of literature that is generally considered significant

Literature –

any style or genre of writing whose primary focus is the expression or communication of feelings or narrating of events in a way that is not common speech and uses figurative language as opposed to writing to keep records or communicate information.

Lyric –

a form of poetry which expresses feelings or observations

Master of Revels –

an appointed person to decide which plays would be performed in Elizabethan Theater

Meditation –

a lyric poem which starts by observing a specific object and then drawing some philosophical inferences

Metafiction –

writings about fiction

Metaphor –

a direct comparison or equivalence

Metaphysical poets –

a poetic movement during the 1600s characterized by analysis, complex form, and themes associated with intellect over emotions

Metaphysical poets –

a poetic movement during the 1600s characterized by analysis, complex form, and themes associated with intellect over emotions

Meter –

the recurring pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in lines of poetry of specific length

Metonymy –

referring to one thing by something else it is associated with: the crown refers to the king

Micro fiction –

a type of short-short story ranging from a few words to a paragraph of less than 250 words

Middle Ages –

a historic period from the late 500s AD to the middle of the 1400s.

Modern short story –

a short story characterized by an apparent lack of action or conflict and/or without resolution

Modern Theater –

began in the late 1800s and is characterized by events and characters based on reality; inspired by the realism movement in art and literature

Modernism –

a literary movement beginning in the early 1900s spurred by the industrial age, a first World War I, and challenges to established Christianity which characterized by feelings of loss of “old ways” and an unknown, insecure future

Monologue –

a long speech-like expression by one character where the other present characters are silent; used more commonly in plays than fiction; a dramatic monologue is a particularly emotional expression

Mood –  

the feeling that is created in the reader as a result of the tone or atmosphere in a work such as anger.  Tone is created by how the author describes the characters, setting, and events such as gloomy or humorous.  Atmosphere is the general feeling of the work itself.  Mood and atmosphere are sometimes used interchangeably.

Moral –

a lesson learned as a result of actions that occurred in a story

Morality plays –

developed and performed in the 1300s and 1400s which were allegories demonstrating Christian principles

Motivation –

the reasons a character takes or does not take action

Mystery plays –

developed during the 900s through the 1500s which are representations of stories from the Bible and gradually fell from popularity with the production of drama such as the works of Shakespeare

Myth –

a traditional story which explains the world and existence of humans usually as part of a cluster of such stories and which is a reflection of a religious belief system or social values of a culture

Narrative –

a story or poem about a sequence of events; a story

Narrator –

the person through whose perspective, knowledge, and voice a story is told

Near rhyme –

approximate rhyme

No plays –

highly stylized Japanese performance art from which Kabuki dramas evolved

Novel –

a longer piece of fiction characterized by more plot and character development than a short story

Novella –

a piece of fiction shorter than a novel and longer than a short story; usually thought of as a short novel

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Objective narrator (objective point of view) –

relates the story as a sequence of events without commenting or judging the characters or their action or situation

Objective –

relates the story as a sequence of events without commenting or judging the characters or their action or situation

Occasional poem –

lyric poetry written about an occasion

Octave –

a poem or stanza of eight lines in a poem

Ode –

a lyric poem explicating the attributes or aspects of nature or a specific object or living creature such as “Ode to a Nightingale.” Uses complex stanza patterns.

Olfactory imagery –

the creation of an image of smell

Omniscient –

an omniscient narrator knows everything about the events and the characters

Onomatopoeia –

words that sound like the sound they mean. "Buzz" is an example of a buzzing sound.

Open form (free verse, vers libre) –

poetry that does not follow any specific pattern of form, rhyme, or meter

Opinion –

a personal evaluation

Oral tradition –

the tradition of transmitting stories, poems, and other cultural information from generation to generation through oral presentation instead of by written documents

Orchestra –

the part of the stage where the orchestra performs generally in a lower section in front of the stage; from “the dancing place” in Ancient Greek Theater

Ottava rima–

a poem or stanza of eight lines with a specific rhyme pattern: iambic pentameter with ab ab ab cc

Oxymoron –  

use of contradictory, opposing, or inconsistent terms such as fearless coward

Pageants –

recreations of Biblical stories during the 1100s and 1200s; also called mystery plays; forerunners of Elizabethan Theater

Palindrome – 

a word, line, verse, number, or sentence which reads the same backward as forward such as radar

Parables –

a short tale used for teaching a lesson

Parodos –

a part of Ancient Greek tragedy where the chorus enters and comments on the prologos following the prologos

Participatory drama – 

where actors mingle and interact with members of the audience

Pastoral romance –

a romance which focuses on the pleasures of the simple, rural life

Pastoral –

a lyric poem which observes the simple pleasures of rural life

Pattern of imagery –

the systematic use of imagery in a work

Perfect rhyme –

when a sound in a word is the same as the sound in another word

Persona –

the personality a narrator assumes; a mask used in Ancient Greek theater by the actors playing a particular role

Personal perspective –

a position based on personal experiences

Personification –

attributing human qualities to a non-human or non-living object

Petrarchan sonnet –

a lyric poem about unattainable love

Physical setting –

the place where the action occurs: a park, a supermarket

Picaresque –

a story about a rogue

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Plot –

the sequence of events in the main action in a piece of literature

Poem –

non-prose use of words to express a feeling or idea usually associated with repetition of sounds, patterned sequences of words and/or lines, figurative language and other poetic devices, and has a highly focused purpose either to tell a story or express an emotion or idea.

Poetic devices –

ways of using language such as imagery, figures of speech, irony, symbolism, allusion, fantasy, point of view, rhyme, rhythm, and theme; used in poetry to compress meaning into fewer words and more intense expression.

Poetic language –

focused use of language which is not bound by Standard English to create an image or arouse a particular emotion

Poetic liberty –

taking the liberty for the purpose of creating an image, feeling, or idea to stray from standard language usage including spelling, definition, and grammar and even linear placement of letters or words; does not have to be only in a poem although that is the most frequent acceptable use.

Poetic license –

use of non-standard grammar and punctuation 

Poetry –

use of language in non-everyday ways such as repetition of sounds and rhyme or focus on an observation or feeling using figures of speech and imagery and other devices to compress meaning resulting in more intense communication.

Point of view –

the perspective from which an author tells a story point of view

Pop fiction –

a type of fiction with exciting or thrilling plots designed for popular audiences characterized by suspenseful plots, usually flat characters, and focus on a swift-moving action.

Postmodernism –

a literary movement that began in the 1960s characterized by introspection, disengagement of conventions and standardization, focus on popular themes of the day such as anti-establishment ideology and personal freedom, exploration, and determination.

Prologos –

the prologue; in Ancient Greek tragedy, the opening section where an actor gives a background or introduction to the play

Prose poem –

is poetry written in prose instead of using verse but preserving poetic qualities such as heightened imagery and emotional effect; an open-form of poetry that is presented as prose.

Prose –

a style of writing generally used in a variety of settings for communication and record keeping and characterized by non-poetic elements; follows standard grammar and other conventions of writing; non-poetic style of language

Protagonist –

the main character, not necessarily the “good” character

Quatrain –

a poem or stanza of four lines

Rap –

vocal style of performing hip-hop verse

Realism –

an artistic movement from about 1865 to 1910 characterized by an attempt to portray life as it actually was

Renaissance –

French for rebirth - a period ranging from the mid-1400s to the mid-1500s which had a renewed interest in science, philosophy, and arts including literature. William Shakespeare wrote during this period.

Resolution (denouement) –

the end; the result of the conflict, sometimes left for the reader to interpret

Revenge tragedy –

revenge tragedy – a genre of tragedy which later evolved where the main theme is to avenge a perceived wrong such as in Hamlet.

Rhyme royal –

a poetic form using seven line stanzas in iambic pentameter with a rhyme pattern of ababbcc.

Rhyme –

the repetition of similar sounds

Rhythm –

is the movement of sound in a recurrent pattern; the beat

Rising action –

the building of conflict and suspense prior to the climax

Rising meter –

movement from unstressed to stressed meter

Romance –

as a literary genre, romance fiction began in the Middle Ages and involved high adventure of noble heroes often with super-human qualities pursuing a righteous quest, included some supernatural aspect, and did not necessarily involve a love situation. The modern usage or the term is a fiction which includes a romantic element.

Romanticism –

a poetic movement beginning in the 1700s characterized by emotion and appreciation for nature and the supernatural and mysterious along with a return to using first-person lyric form

Round character – 

a character whose personality is multi-dimensional; a complicated character as distinguished from a flat character whose personality is not described in detail.  Stock characters and caricatures are types of flat characters since their personalities generally have a single, dominant characteristic.

Run-on line/enjambment – 

the continuation of a sentence or thought onto the next line

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Sarcasm –

a form of expression which says something opposite from what is meant in a way to criticize or insult or express anger such as describing a bad day by saying, “What a great day I had!”

Satire –

a form of literature which uses exaggerated, flat characters to represent some aspect of a person or society for the purpose of making a critical comment through ridicule.

Scansion –

a way of marking the metrical pattern in a poem

Scene –

a part of the play where specific action occurs; from the Ancient Greek skene, a building behind the platform stage which served as the dressing room for the actors.

Scenery –

items used to create the scene including furnishings and props; lighting, music, costumes, and sound effects are also used in plays

Science fiction –

a type of fantasy that includes unreal scientific technology or events

Second-person narrator (second-person point of view) –

a story told in second person (you); may be from the perspective of a character in the story who knows everything (omniscient narrator) or who has limited knowledge (limited narrator); not generally used in fiction.

Sestet –

a poem or stanza of six lines in a poem

Sestina –

a thirty-nine line poem consisting of six six-line stanzas with a three-line stanza (tercet) at the end

Setting –

the environment in which the action occurs

Shakespearean sonnet –

a sonnet that has three four-line stanzas (quatrains) and a two-line stanza (couplet)

Short story –

a fictional story that is shorter than a novel; usually begins near climax; setting is generally limited, and characters are few and less developed than novel; often includes an epiphany (where a character has a flash of insight).

Short-short story –

a short story from a paragraph to a page or so in length; less than 1500 words; includes flash fiction and micro fiction; also called sudden fiction

Sidekick –

a character subordinate to another character; often used for comic relief

Simile –

a comparison using the word like or as

Situational irony –

an irony created when there is a discrepancy between what is expected to have occurred and what has actually occurred in the situation

Slam poetry –

a movement characterized by the competitive art of performance poetry

Slang –

non-standard use of language

Slant rhyme –

close but not exact rhyme; near rhyme; approximate rhyme

Soliloquy –

where a character shares his or her feelings or thoughts with the audience where no other character can hear

Sonnet –

a fourteen-line poem in iambic pentameter with a carefully patterned rhyme scheme

Speaker –

the narrator of a poem

Specific words –

words that specify something such as large, round, blue

Spoken word movement –

a movement starting in the 1990s to make poetry more popular and accessible to everyone; some consider rap an example of this movement

Stage business –

incidental actions or movements of an actor to enhance the performance such as wringing hands or sitting a certain way on a chair

Stage directions –

playwright’s directions in the play to the actors such as possibly where to stand or whether a line should be spoken loudly or quietly

Stage –

the various structures created upon which plays were or are performed including box set, picture frame stage with proscenium arch, thrust stage, arena, and open air.

Staging –

refers to all aspects necessary to produce a play such as arranging for scenery and props, costumes, securing the performance hall, and so on:  the staging of a play.

Standard English –

the form of English which follows rules of grammar without slang or colloquialism

Stanza –

a group of lines generally completing an idea

Stasimon (strophes, antistrophes) –

a section between the episodia where the chorus enters and comments on the action in groups representing different positions: strophes and antistrophes

Static imagery –

an image which is unchanging

Static –

a character that does not change during the story

Stock characters –

stereotyped characters such as the good doctor, the determined detective, the kindly old neighbor lady

Storytelling –

the communication of a series of events which may take different forms such as anecdotes,  myths, fables, tall tales, legends, fairy tales

Stream-of-consciousness –

a style of writing that writes how a person is thinking; written-down thoughts.

Stress –

the emphasis on particular syllables

Style –

the composite of ways a speaker or writer uses language to create a communication

Subject –

the person, object, or topic of focus in literature

Subplot –  

the sequence of events in a subordinate storyline in piece of literature

Sudden fiction –

a type of short story of less than 1500 words; another way of referring to the short-short story

Surrealism –

a literary movement beginning about 1910 where writers wrote automatically rather than with preliminary organizing in an effort to channel inner reality into a writing; followed from a movement in art

Surrealistic stage setting –

the use of colors, props, costumes, lighting, music, and/or scenery that are outside the boundaries of everyday usage such as usual shapes and colors of walls or furniture

Suspense –

the emotional reaction to the conflict in anticipation of future action, climax, and resolution

Symbol –

something that is what it is and also represents something else

Symbolic title –

a title which contains a symbol often helping to reveal theme

Synecdoche –

use of a part of a person to object to refer to the person or the object: the hand that rocked the cradle to refer to the person rocking the cradle

Synesthesia –

the combining of sensory images

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Tactile imagery –

the creation of an image of touch

Ten-minute plays –

a short play which is performed in no more than ten minutes

Tension –

the result of the friction between the protagonist and antagonist

Tercet –

a three-line poem or stanza in a poem

Terza rima –

a poem or stanza in three lines with the first and third line rhyming: aba bcb cdc and so on

Text –

any written body of words; may be either prose or poetry

Theater of the Absurd –

a movement in drama beginning around the 1960s where exaggerated characters and action using symbols seems absurd

Theme (theme of a story) –

the central idea in a story about life or human nature expressed in a statement.  The theme of a story is different from a conventional theme which is a commonly used theme topic such a love or family. The theme of a story is what idea is conveyed about a topic.  Theme is also different from plot which is the sequence of events in the story.

Third person narrator (third person point of view) –

a story told in third person (he, she, it); may be from the perspective of a character in the story who knows everything (omniscient narrator) or who has limited knowledge (limited narrator)

Third person –

third person point of view tells the story from the perspective of an outsider as opposed to first person where the narrator is telling a story about him or herself using the word I.

Title –

what a story is called; often includes symbolism or irony

Tone –

the attitude of the speaker or narrator such as in an angry or cheerful tone; the attitude with which the story is told as expressed in particular words; a description of people laughing and enjoying themselves conveys a happy tone, for example. Tone helps creates the atmosphere which is the general or overall feeling or emotion or a work.  Tone also helps create mood which is the emotional reaction in the reader resulting from the atmosphere. Mood refers to individual emotions while atmosphere refers to an overall feeling. Sometimes, mood and atmosphere are used interchangeably.

Tragedy –

a form of literature originating in the plays of the Classical Greek era which includes a tragic hero, an otherwise noble person having a superior stature in the community who through some tragic flaw causes himself a fall resulting in an adverse impact upon his community and often his own death; thought to have evolved from the aspect of the dying god in the Dionysian rituals

Tragic flaw – 

an undesirable personality trait that results in the fall of an otherwise good person

Tragic hero –

a character of elevated status who is a good person but for a tragic flaw which brings about his or her downfall

Travel narrative –

a narrative about a journey usually written by the person about his or her own journey

Troubadours –

traveling poets/performers from the Provencal region of France during the Middle Ages reciting lyric poetry about courtly love

Troubadours –

traveling poets/performers from the Provencal region of France during the Middle Ages reciting lyric poetry about courtly love

Understatement –

saying less than what is meant

Universal symbols (archetypes) –

symbols that seem to be part of the human psyche which are generally accepted across time and culture such as the Old Man representing experience and wisdom or the Grim Reaper representing death.

Unreliable narrators –

a narrator who is either not omniscient or is deliberately misleading the reader

Verbal irony –

an irony created within a sentence where there is a difference between what is said and what is meant

Victorian Period –

defined by the period when Queen Victoria reigned from 1837 to 1901 and included several artistic movements characterized by a concern for the impact of industrialization on humans and social reform; includes different artistic movements.

Villanelle –

a nineteen-line poem of five three-line stanzas (tercets) followed by a four-line stanza (quatrain) and which includes two repeating rhymes and two refrains

Visual imagery –

the creation of an image of sight

Terms Related to Plot and Theme

Fiction –

a created series of characters and events that has not actually happened

Fictionalize –

to create a fiction from an actual event

Storytelling –

the communication of a series of events which may take different forms such as anecdotes, myths, fables, tall tales, legends and fairy tales.

Plot –

the sequence of events in the main action in a piece of literature

Subplot –  

the sequence of events in a subordinate storyline in piece of literature

Action –

the events that occur in the piece of literature

Arrangement of events –

how the events are structured in a plot; may be chronological, start in the middle of things (in medias res), or as flashbacks

Chronological order –

the presentation of events in the order they occurred in time

In medias res –

Latin expression meaning “in the middle of things”; an arrangement of events where the story starts somewhere in the middle of the action and then goes forward giving information about what happened before through narration, dialogue, or flashbacks.

Flashbacks –

a technique used to show events that previous occurred by interrupting the present action and going back to previous events; generally used when a story starts in medias res (in the middle of things) such as where a scene opens during a trial and then some of the previous action leading up to the trial is told.

Foreshadowing –

a literary device that gives a hint as to what is going to occur

Exposition –

a part of the fiction (or or drama or poem) which introduces the characters, settings, and conflict

Protagonist –

the main character, not necessarily the “good” character

Antagonist –

the forces against the protagonist; could be another character, a force of nature, or an organization, or other entity or situation which creates opposition to protagonist.

Conflict –

the friction between the goals of the protagonist (the main character – doesn’t have to be the “good” character) and the forces against the protagonist, called the antagonist

Tension –

the result of the friction between the protagonist and antagonist

Suspense –

the emotional reaction to the conflict in anticipation of future action, climax, and resolution

Rising action –

the building of conflict and suspense prior to the climax

Climax –  

the highest point of conflict; the point at which the action begins to fall to resolution (denouement)

Falling action –

the action following the climax ending in resolution (denouement)

Resolution (denouement) –

the end; the result of the conflict, sometimes left for the reader to interpret

Deus ex machina –

a plot contrivance to unexpectedly save a character from a seemingly inescapable, problematic situation often associated with a divine intervention; first used in Ancient Greek and Roman theatre where mechanical devices were used, such as a pulley to lower a god or goddess onto the set to take the character back into the heavens.

Epiphany –

the sudden insight a character has about him or herself, another character, or the situation

Subject –

the person, object, or topic of focus in literature

Cliché –

a worn-out phrase purporting to tell some general truth which no longer has meaning because of his overuse

Moral –

a lesson learned as a result of actions that occurred in a story

Theme –

the central idea in a story

Title –

what a story is called; often includes symbolism or irony

Ironic title –

a title which contains irony often helping to reveal theme

Symbolic title –

a title which contains a symbol often helping to reveal theme

Initiation theme –

a theme about being initiated into something new

Carpe diem –

“seize the day”; sometimes, a theme in a fiction or poem

Terms Related to Types of Fiction

Prose –

a style of writing generally used in a variety of settings for communication and record keeping and characterized by non-poetic elements; follows standard grammar and other conventions of writing.

Biography –

a factual story written about a person by another person

Autobiography –

a factual story written by a person on his or her own life

History –

the actual events

Narrative –

a story or poem about a sequence of event

Travel narrative –

a narrative about a journey usually written by the person about his or her own journey

Capture narrative –

a journal kept by a person who was captured and held against his or her will and forced to live in another culture; generally associated with stories white people have written about being captured and living with the Indians in early American history.

Anecdotes –

short, amusing, true events about a person that relate a bigger truth about life than the specific incident

Parables –

a short tale used for teaching a lesson

Fables –

a short tale used for teaching a lesson which uses animals, objects, or nature

Beast fable –

a fable that has animals with human qualities as characters

Folk tales –

stories or legends that are about or from a culture or group of people (folk)

Fairy tales –

stories that include supernatural creatures such as fairies or magicians

Epic –

a narrative that involves conflict on a broad scale with humans of special stature or ability fighting a battle or having an adventure whose outcome will impact the world beyond the participants; often includes gods

Myth –

a traditional story which explains the world and existence of humans usually as part of a cluster of such stories and which is a reflection of a religious belief system.

Picaresque –

a story about a rogue

Short story –

a fictional story that is shorter than a novel; usually begins near climax; setting is generally limited, and characters are few and less developed than novel; often includes an epiphany (where a character has a flash of insight).

Modern short story –

a short story characterized by an apparent lack of action or conflict and/or without resolution

Short-short story –

a short story from a paragraph to a page or so in length; less than 1500 words; includes flash fiction and micro fiction; also called sudden fiction

Flash fiction –

a type of short story less than 1000 words

Micro fiction –

a type of short-short story ranging from a few words to a paragraph of less than 250 words

Sudden fiction –

a type of short story of less than 1500 words; another way of referring to the short-short story

Novel –

a longer piece of fiction characterized by more plot and character development than a short story

Novella –

a piece of fiction shorter than a novel and longer than a short story; usually thought of as a short novel

Metafiction –

writings about fiction

Stream-of-consciousness –

a style of writing meant to convey written-down thoughts

Fantasy –

a fiction which includes some aspect or situation that does not fall into the understood rules of physics, scientific possibility, or reality

Science fiction –

a type of fantasy that includes unreal scientific technology or events

Horror fiction –

a type of fiction that includes an event or events that are very frightening and which may include fantasy or science fiction

Crime fiction –

a type of fiction whose plot revolves around solving a crime

Romance –

as a literary genre, romance fiction began in the Middle Ages and involved high adventure of noble heroes often with super-human qualities pursuing a righteous quest, included some supernatural aspect, and did not necessarily involve a love situation. The modern usage or the term is a fiction which includes a romantic element.

Pastoral romance –

a romance which focuses on the pleasures of the simple, rural life

Chivalric romance –

a romance popular from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance involving the romantic exploits of chivalric heroes, men who abided by the Code of Chivalry.

Pop fiction –

a type of fiction with exciting or thrilling plots designed for popular audiences characterized by suspenseful plots, usually flat characters, and focus on a swift-moving action.

Terms Related to Character

Caricatures –

a character presented with an exaggeration of prominent features

Character –

a person in a piece of literature

Dynamic character –

a character that changes during the story

Static –

a character that does not change during the story

Flat character –

a character described with only one or two personality traits; a superficial character

Round character – 

a character whose personality is multi-dimensional; a complicated character

Motivation –

the reasons a character takes or does not take action

Foil –

a character created as a contrast to another character as a way of focusing attention on the traits of that other character such as a character taking an unethical approach in order to focus attention on another character taking the ethical approach.

Sidekick –

a character subordinate to another character; often used for comic relief

Stock characters –

stereotyped characters such as the good doctor, the determined detective, the kindly old neighbor lady

Tragic hero –

a character of elevated status who is a good person but for a tragic flaw which brings about his or her downfall

Tragic flaw – 

an undesirable personality trait that results in the fall of an otherwise good person

Hubris –

arrogance; an attribute where a character (or a person) has an exaggerated sense of him or herself or his or her importance

Dialogue –

a conversation between or among characters

Monologue –

a long speech-like expression by one character where the other present characters are silent; used more commonly in plays than fiction; a dramatic monologue is a particularly emotional expression

Asides –

where a character makes a comment to the audience which is supposedly not heard by the other characters; used in drama

Soliloquy –

where a character shares his or her feelings or thoughts with the audience where no other character can hear them.

Terms Related to Fiction - Point of View and Irony

Point of view –

the perspective from which an author tells a story

Narrator –

the person through whose perspective, knowledge, and voice a story is told

Speaker –

the narrator of a poem

Persona –

the personality a narrator assumes; a mask used in Ancient Greek theater by the actors playing a particular role

First-person narrator (first-person point of view) – 

a story told from the viewpoint of the author of the story as a character in the story using the word "I" to tell the story; may be omniscient (all knowing) or limited (knows only information from that character’s perspective).

Second person narrator (second person point of view) –

a story told in second person (you); may be from the perspective of a character in the story who knows everything (omniscient narrator) or who has limited knowledge (limited narrator); not generally used in fiction.

Third person narrator (third person point of view) –

a story told in third person (he, she, it); may be from the perspective of a character in the story who knows everything (omniscient narrator) or who has limited knowledge (limited narrator).

Objective narrator (objective point of view) –

relates the story as a sequence of events without commenting or judging the characters, their action or situation.

Stream-of-consciousness –

a style of writing that writes how a person is thinking; written-down thoughts.

Unreliable narrators –

a narrator who is either not omniscient or is deliberately misleading the reader.

Terms Related to Fiction - Figures of Speech

Allusion–

a reference to an historical event, aspect of culture, character or content in a piece of literature, or other widely known type of information to convey a feeling, idea, or image; serves to convey information using a few words.

Apostrophe –

where the speaker speaks to a dead or non-present person

Extended metaphor –

direct comparison which is repeated in the poem; more commonly used in an epic poem where the same comparison is used throughout

Extended simile – 

comparison using the word "like" or "as" which is repeated in the poem; more commonly used in an epic poem where the same comparison is used throughout.

Figurative language –

language that is used to mean some other or something more than it says; language that is used in a non-literal way

Figures of speech –

various ways speech is used figuratively

Hyperbole –

saying more than what is meant; exaggeration

Metaphor –

a direct comparison or equivalence

Metonymy –

referring to one thing by something else it is associated with: the crown refers to the king

Personification –

attributing human qualities to a non-human or non-living object

Simile –

a comparison using the word "like" or "as"

Synecdoche –

use of a part of a person to object to refer to the person or the object: the hand that rocked the cradle to refer to the person rocking the cradle

Understatement –

saying less than what is meant

Terms Related to Fiction - Irony

Irony –

created when there is a discrepancy between an expectation and actuality

Dramatic irony (tragic irony) –

an irony created when the audience knows something a character does not know

Situational irony –

an irony created when there is a discrepancy between what is expected to have occurred and what has actually occurred in the situation

Verbal irony –

an irony created within a sentence where there is a difference between what is said and what is meant

Tone –

the attitude with which the story is told as expressed in particular words; a description of people laughing and enjoying themselves conveys a happy tone, for example.

Sarcasm –

a form of expression which says something opposite from what is meant in a way to criticize or insult or express anger such as describing a bad day by saying, “What a great day I had!”

Terms Related to Fiction - Plot and Theme

Action –

the events that occur in the piece of literature

Antagonist –

the forces against the protagonist; could be another character, a force of nature, or an organization, or other entity or situation which creates opposition to the protagonist.

Arrangement of events –

how the events are structured in a plot; may be chronological, start in the middle of things (in medias res), or as flashbacks

Carpe diem –

Latin for seize the day; sometimes, a theme in a fiction or poem

Chronological order –

the presentation of events in the order they occurred in time

Cliché –

worn-out phrase purporting to tell some general truth which no longer has meaning because of his overuse

Climax –

the highest point of conflict; the point at which the action begins to fall to resolution (denouement)

Conflict –

the friction between the goals of the protagonist (the main character – doesn’t have to be the “good” character) and the forces against the protagonist, called the antagonist

Deus ex machina –

a plot contrivance to unexpectedly save a character from a seemingly inescapable, problematic situation often associated with a divine intervention; first used in Ancient Greek and Roman theatre where mechanical devices were used, such as a pulley to lower a god or goddess onto the set to take the character back into the heavens.

Epiphany –

the sudden insight a character has about him or herself, another character, or the situation

Exposition –

a part of the fiction (or drama or poem) which introduces the characters, settings, and conflict

Falling action –

the action following the climax ending in resolution (denouement)

Fiction –

a created series of characters and events that has not actually happened

Fictionalize –

to create a fiction from an actual event

Flashbacks –

a technique used to show events that previous occurred by interrupting the present action and going back to previous events; generally used when a story starts in medias res (in the middle of things) such as where a scene opens during a trial and then some of the previous action leading up to the trial is told.

Foreshadowing –

a literary device that gives a hint as to what is going to occur

In medias res –

Latin expression meaning in the middle of things; an arrangement of events where the story starts somewhere in the middle of the action and then goes forward giving information about what happened before through narration, dialogue, or flashbacks.

Initiation theme –

a theme about being initiated into something new

Ironic title –

a title which contains irony often helping to reveal the theme

Moral –

a lesson learned as a result of actions that occurred in a story

Plot –

the sequence of events in the main action in a piece of literature

Protagonist –

the main character, not necessarily the “good” character

Resolution (denouement) –

the end; the result of the conflict, sometimes left for the reader to interpret

Rising action –

the building of conflict and suspense prior to the climax

Storytelling –

the communication of a series of events which may take different forms such as anecdotes, myths, fables, tall tales, legends and fairy tales

Subject –

the person, object, or topic of focus in literature

Subplot –  

the sequence of events in a subordinate storyline in piece of literature

Suspense –

the emotional reaction to the conflict in anticipation of future action, climax, and resolution

Symbolic title –

a title which contains a symbol often helping to reveal theme

Tension –

the result of the friction between the protagonist and antagonist

Theme –

the central idea in a story

Title –

what a story is called; often includes symbolism or irony

Terms Related to Fiction - Setting

Setting –

the environment in which the action occurs

Physical setting –

the place where the action occurs: a park, a supermarket

Historical setting –

the moment in history where the action occurs

Geographical setting –

the town, state, country, or other geographical place

Cultural setting –

the ethnic, religious, or other setting relating to culture such as sociological

Atmosphere –

the general feeling in the environment created as a result of the tone and mood

Tone –

the attitude of the author toward the characters and events; in describing the situation as “one of many self-imposed troubles,” the author created a non-sympathetic tone,

Mood –

the resulting emotional setting from the tone; the feelings of the characters toward a character described as creating his own problems would not non-sympathetic or possibly indifference.

Character analysis –

the analysis of a character’s personality based on the behavior described in the work of literature; may be described in everyday language such as selfish, kind, thoughtful, or mean or in psychological terms such as having a narcissistic personality disorder or depressed.

Cultural context –

the consideration of the cultural setting in order to do a character analysis such as the pre-Women’s Movement in America in a rural community in the 1920s or 1930s.

Terms Related to Symbols

Allegorical figures –

the symbolic character representing something in an allegory such as the character Faith representing religious faith in “Young Goodman Brown”

Allegorical framework –

the overall organization of an allegory

Allegory –

a pattern of using symbols to tell a story in a story

Archetypal images –

images that are generally accepted as representing something such as the Statue of Liberty representing freedom and opportunity

Conventional symbols –

symbols with a generally understood meaning across cultures with similar usages such as the various road signs or even computer icons.

Figurative level –

the non-literal level; the place where the story behind the story is told

Literary symbols –

symbols that are used within a piece of literature to represent a person, object, or situation in that piece of literature such as pink ribbons representing the purity and innocence of a character who is wearing them.

Symbol –

something that is what it is and also represents something else

Universal symbols (archetypes) –

symbols that seem to be part of the human psyche which are generally accepted across time and culture such as the Old Man representing experience and wisdom or the Grim Reaper representing death.

Terms Related to Defining Poetry

Prose –

the use of language in day-to-day situations including business settings and which generally follows conventional practices such as grammatical rules; non-poetic style of language

Text –

any written body of words; may be either prose or poetry

Poem –

non-prose use of words to express a feeling or idea usually associated with repetition of sounds, patterned sequences of words and/or lines, figurative language and other poetic devices, and has a highly focused purpose either to tell a story or express an emotion or idea.

Poetry –

use of language in non-everyday ways such as repetition of sounds and rhyme or focus on an observation or feeling using figures of speech and imagery and other devices to compress meaning resulting in more intense communication.

Form (poetic form) –

poetry has two forms: narrative which tells a story and lyric which expression an emotion or idea

Line –

a line of poetry is what is written on one line; not necessarily a sentence

Stanza –

a group of lines generally completing an idea

Closed form (fixed form) –

poetry which follows a pattern of sounds, rhyme, or meter

Iambic pentameter –

a common type of pattern of sounds and rhythm used in poetry created by pairing ten syllables for each line into five pairs. Commonly used by Shakespeare in his sonnets.

Common measure –

a ballad stanza generally rhyming in alternating pairs

Couplet –

a poem or stanza of two lines

Heroic couplet –

two lines of rhymed verse in iambic pentameter; generally used in epic poems

Tercet –

a three-line poem or stanza in a poem

Quatrain –

a poem or stanza of four lines

Octave–

a poem or stanza of eight lines in a poem

Ottava rima–

a poem or stanza of eight lines with a specific rhyme pattern: iambic pentameter with ab ab ab cc

Terza rima –

a poem or stanza in three lines with the first and third line rhyming: aba bcb cdc and so on

Blank verse –

unrhymed iambi pentameter

Prose poem –

an open-form of poetry that is presented as prose

Open form (free verse, vers libre) –

poetry that does not follow any specific pattern of form, rhyme, or meter

Poetic devices –

ways of using language such as imagery, figures of speech, irony, symbolism, allusion, fantasy, point of view, rhyme, rhythm, and theme; used in poetry to compress meaning into fewer words and more intense expression.

Ancient Poetry –

poetry created before the late 500s AD having roots in an oral tradition of creating and performing poetry verbally. Surviving poetry includes love poem from Ancient Sumeria, poetic verses in ancient religious texts including the Bible and Koran, and epics such as the Iliad and Odyssey.

Middle Ages –

an historic period from the late 500s AD to the middle of the 1400s.

Anglo-Saxon era –

poetry created from the beginning of the Middle Ages (late 500s AD) into the end of the Middle Ages (mid-1400s) usually associated with tales of heroic deeds and non-romantic love.

Troubadours –

traveling poets/performers from the Provencal region of France during the Middle Ages reciting lyric poetry about courtly love

Renaissance –

from the French for rebirth; a period ranging from the mid-1400s to the mid-1500s associated with a renewed interest in science, philosophy, and arts including literature. William Shakespeare wrote during this period.

Metaphysical poets –

a poetic movement during the 1600s characterized by analysis, complex form, and themes associated with intellect over emotions.

Romanticism –

a poetic movement beginning in the 1700s characterized by emotion and appreciation for nature and the supernatural and mysterious along with a return to using first-person lyric form.

Modernism –

a poetic movement beginning in the early 1900s spurred by the industrial age, a first World War I, and challenges to established Christianity which characterized by feelings of loss of “old ways” and an unknown, insecure future.

Imagism –

a poetic movement beginning in the early 1900s where poets began experimenting with open verse and focused on the poet’s response to a situation or object stressing concrete imagery.

Harlem Renaissance –

a movement during the 1920s starting in Harlem which focused on Black culture

Black Mountain poets –

a movement during the 1930s starting in Black Mountain, North Carolina which stressed the process of writing instead of the completed poem.

Beat poets –

a movement beginning in the late 1940s where poets turned to the use of psychogenic drugs for mind expansion and where social and political criticism was a common theme.

Confessional poems –

a movement beginning in the 1950s where the subject of poems were the very personal experiences of the poet beyond just a yearning for love or a specific emotional reaction.

Black Arts Movement –

a movement beginning in the 1960s where poets focused on social and political situation of African-Americans.

Slam poetry –

a movement characterized by the competitive art of performance poetry

Spoken word movement –

a movement starting in the 1990s to make poetry more popular and accessible to everyone; some consider rap an example of this movement

Poetic liberty –

taking the liberty for the purpose of creating an image, feeling, or idea to stray from standard language usage including spelling, definition, and grammar and even linear placement of letters or words; does not have to be only in a poem although that is the most frequent acceptable use.

Poetic license –

the term used to describe the justification for taking poetic liberty

Terms Related to Types of Poetry

Allegory –

a type of poem where a pattern of symbols is used to tell a story within a story

Aubade –

a lyric poem about morning or the rising sun

Ballad –

a narrative poem telling a story a person or event often about love usually told in rhymed stanzas and which includes a repeated refrain.  Ballads are often sung.

Ballad stanza –

a stanza of four lines (quatrain) with the second and fourth lines rhyming

Concrete poem –

a poem whose words or letters are laid out on the page to reflect the theme of the poem.

Confessional –

a form of poem that reveals highly personal experiences

Dramatic monologue –

a lyric poem where the speaker expresses strong emotions or ideas to silent listeners.

Elegy –

a lyric poem which mourns the death of a particular person

Epic –

a narrative poem which tells a story of a great adventure or battle and which involves humans of exceptional stature such as kings who often have superior strength or skills or includes gods. The results of the adventure, battle or war has drastic consequences beyond the fate of the participants often for an entire country or kingdom.

Epigram –

a short clever poem making a pointed, sometimes paradoxical, observation

Haiku –

a form of Japanese verse with three lines which are not rhymed and which have five, seven, and five syllables usually involving some aspect of nature.

Hip-hop –

musical verse which uses rhyme, repetition of sounds and phases

Lyric –

a form of poetry which expresses feelings or observations

Meditation –

a lyric poem which starts by observing a specific object and then drawing some philosophical inferences

Narrative –

a form of poetry which tells a story

Occasional poem –

lyric poetry written about an occasion

Ode –

a lyric poem explicating the attributes or aspects of nature or a specific object or living creature such as “Ode to a Nightingale.” Uses complex stanza patterns.

Pastoral –

a lyric poem which observes the simple pleasures of rural life

Petrarchan sonnet –

a lyric poem about unattainable love

Prose poem –

is poetry written in prose instead of using verse but preserving poetic qualities such as heightened imagery and emotional effect

Rap –

vocal style of performing hip-hop verse

Rhyme royal –

a poetic form using seven line stanzas in iambic pentameter with a rhyme pattern of ababbcc.

Sestet –

a poem or stanza of six lines in a poem

Sestina –

a thirty-nine line poem consisting of six six-line stanzas with a three-line stanza (tercet) at the end

Shakespearean sonnet –

a sonnet that has three four-line stanzas (quatrains) and a two-line stanza (couplet)

Slam poetry –

the competitive art of performance poetry

Sonnet –

a fourteen-line poem in iambic pentameter with a carefully patterned rhyme scheme

Villanelle –

a nineteen-line poem of five three-line stanzas (tercets) followed by a four-line stanza (quatrain) and which includes two repeating rhymes and two refrains.

Terms Related to Poetry – Point of View

Point of view –

the perspective from which an author tells a story point of view – the perspective from which an author tells a story.

First person –

first person point of view tells the story from the narrator’s personal perspective using I, we, me, my, us, our.  First person narration is used when a person is writing about themselves such as in an autobiography where it is purportedly telling the truth.  In fiction, first person is where telling the story as though it is about a personal occurrence, but it could be completely fictional where the author simply uses first person to make the story seem like a true event when it is a fiction.  First person narrators are not necessarily reliable to be telling an actual series of events.

Narrator –

the person through whose voice a story is told

Speaker –

the narrator of a poem

Persona –

the personality a narrator assumes; a mask used in Ancient Greek theater by the actors playing a particular role

Irony –

created when  there is a discrepancy between an expectation and an actuality

Dramatic irony (tragic irony) –

an irony created when the audience knows something a character does not know

Situational irony –

an irony created when there is a discrepancy between what is expected to have occurred and what has actually occurred in the situation

Verbal irony –

an irony created within a sentence where there is a difference between what is said and what is meant

Unreliable narrators –

a narrator who is either not omniscient or is deliberately misleading the reader

Third person –

third person point of view tells the story from the perspective of an outsider as opposed to first person where the narrator is telling a story about him or herself using the word "I"

Omniscient –

an omniscient narrator knows everything about the events and the characters

Limited omniscient –

a limited omniscient narrator only knows about the story and characters from a limited perspective such as one of the characters who does not know everything.

Objective –

relates the story as a sequence of events without commenting or judging the characters or their action or situation.

Stream-of-consciousness –

a style of writing that writes how a person is thinking; written-down thoughts.

Tone –

the attitude with which the story is told as expressed in particular words; a description of people laughing and enjoying themselves conveys a happy tone, for example.

Sarcasm –

a form of expression which says something opposite from what is meant in a way to criticize or insult or express anger such as describing a bad day by saying, “What a great day I had!”

Terms Related to Poetry – Figures of Speech

Figurative language –

language that is used to mean some other or something more than it says; language that is used in a non-literal way

Figures of speech –

various ways speech is used figuratively

Simile –

a comparison using the word "like" or "as"

Metaphor –

a direct comparison or equivalence

Extended simile – 

comparison using the word "like" or "as" which is repeated in the poem; more commonly used in an epic poem where the same comparison is used throughout.

Extended metaphor –

direct comparison which is repeated in the poem; more commonly used in an epic poem where the same comparison is used throughout

Personification –

attributing human qualities to a non-human or non-living object

Hyperbole –

saying more than what is meant; exaggeration

Understatement –

saying less than what is meant

Metonymy –

referring to one thing by something else it is associated with: the crown refers to the king

Synecdoche –

use of a part of a person to object to refer to the person or the object: the hand that rocked the cradle refers to the person rocking the cradle.

Apostrophe –

where the speaker speaks to a dead or non-present person

Allusion–

a reference to an historical event, aspect of culture, character or content in a piece of literature, or other widely known type of information to convey a feeling, idea, or image; serves to convey information using a few words.

Terms Related to Poetry – Symbol and Allegory

Symbol –

something that is what it is and also represents something else

Universal symbols (archetypes) –

symbols that seem to be part of the human psyche which are generally accepted across time and culture such as the Old Man representing experience and wisdom or the Grim Reaper representing death.

Archetypal images –

images that are generally accepted as representing something such as the Statue of Liberty representing freedom and opportunity.

Conventional symbols –

symbols with a generally understood meaning across cultures with similar usages such as the various road signs or even computer icons.

Literary symbols –

symbols that are used within a piece of literature to represent a person, object, or situation in that piece of literature such as pink ribbons representing the purity and innocence of a character who is wearing them.

Allegory –

a pattern of using symbols to tell a story in a story

Allegorical figures –

the symbolic character representing something in an allegory such as the character Faith representing religious faith in “Young Goodman Brown”

Allegorical framework –

the overall organization of an allegory

Figurative level –

the non-literal level; the place where the story behind the story is told

Terms Related to Poetry – Imagery

Imagery –

the creation of sensory images through words

Pattern of imagery –

the systematic use of imagery in a work

Synesthesia –

the combining of sensory images

Visual imagery –

the creation of an image of sight

Auditory imagery –

the creation of an image of sound

Tactile imagery –

the creation of an image of touch

Olfactory imagery –

the creation of an image of smell

Gustatory imagery –

the creation of an image of taste

Static imagery –

an image which is unchanging

Kinetic imagery –

an image which creates a sense of motion or movement such as the wind in the trees

Connotation –

the understood or implied meaning of a word as opposed to the literal meaning such as the word home which has more meaning than just where a person lives.

Atmosphere –

the general feeling of the surroundings that is created by the work such as peaceful

Mood –

the feeling that is created in the reader as a result of the tone or atmosphere in a work such as anger.

Terms Related to Poetry – Sound and Rhythm

Alliteration –

the repetition of sounds in the beginnings of word; front rhyme

Anaphora –

repetition of word or words at the beginning of lines or stanzas

Approximate rhyme –

near rhyme

Assonance –

use of vowel sounds for rhyming

Cacophony –

unrhymed or discordant sounds

Caesura –

a pause or stop in the middle of a verse

Consonance –

use of consonants for rhyming

End-stopped line –

a pause at the end of a line of verse

Enjambment/run-on line –

continuation of a thought or sentence onto a new line

Euphony –

good or pleasing sound

Eye rhyme –

a similarity in spelling between words that are pronounced differently

Falling meter –

movement from stressed to unstressed meter

Imperfect rhyme –

close but not exact rhyme; near rhyme; approximate rhyme

Meter –

the recurring pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in lines of poetry of specific length

Near rhyme –

approximate rhyme

Onomatopoeia –

words that sound like the sound they mean: buzz

Perfect rhyme –

when a sound in a word is the same as the sound in another word

Rhyme –

the repetition of similar sounds

Rhythm –

is the movement of sound in a recurrent pattern; the beat

Rising meter –

movement from unstressed to stressed meter

Run-on line/enjambment –

the continuation of a sentence or thought onto the next line

Scansion –

a way of marking the metrical pattern in a poem

Slant rhyme –

close but not exact rhyme; near rhyme; approximate rhyme

Stress –

the emphasis on particular syllables

Terms Related to What Is Drama?

Drama –

a form of literature presented where parts are written for actors to perform and the action is revealed primarily through the dialogue of the characters and the action includes high emotional content; the modern usage includes television and film.

Stage –

the various structures created upon which plays were or are performed including box set, picture frame stage with proscenium arch, thrust stage, arena, and open air.

Stage directions –

playwright’s directions in the play to the actors such as possibly where to stand or whether a line should be spoken loudly or quietly.

Staging –

refers to all aspects necessary to produce a play such as arranging for scenery and props, costumes, securing the performance hall, and so on: the staging of a play.

Stage business –

incidental actions or movements of an actor to enhance the performance such as wringing hands or sitting a certain way on a chair.

Orchestra –

the part of the stage where the orchestra performs generally in a lower section in front of the stage; from “the dancing place” in Ancient Greek Theater.

Chorus –

in staged performances, a group of “townspeople” who articulate different perspectives; from the Greek chorus

Chorogos –

the leader of the chorus

Scene –

a part of the play where specific action occurs; from the Ancient Greek skene, a building behind the platform stage which served as the dressing room for the actors.

Scenery –

items used to create the scene including furnishings and props; lighting, music, costumes, and sound effects are also used in plays.

Colonnade –

a line of pillars with a roof behind the skene in Ancient Greek Theater

Act –

a section of a play which generally includes more than one scene

Prologos –

the prologue; in Ancient Greek tragedy, the opening section where an actor gives a background or introduction to the play.

Parodos –

a part of Ancient Greek tragedy where the chorus enters and comments on the prologos following the prologos.

Episodia –

episodes or scenes following the parodos where the actors play out the conflict.

Stasimon (strophes, antistrophes) –

a section between the episodia where the chorus enters and comments on the action in groups representing different positions: strophes and antistrophes.

Ancient Greek Theater (Dionysus, Sophocles, Euripides) –

the presentation of drama and comedy dating back about 400-500 BC to Sophocles and Euripides in Ancient Greece.

Elizabethan Theater –

developed during the 1500, a form of theater which where plays were performs in the courtyards of inns and evolved into a highly sophisticated form of theater with elaborate theaters; includes Shakespearean plays.

Pageants –

recreations of Biblical stories during the 1100s and 1200s; also called mystery plays; forerunners of Elizabethan Theater.

mystery plays –

developed during the 900s through the 1500s which are representations of stories from the Bible and gradually fell from popularity with the production of drama such as the works of Shakespeare.

Morality plays –

developed and performed from the 1300s and 1400s which were allegories demonstrating Christian principles.

Master of Revels –

an appointed person to decide which plays would be performed in Elizabethan Theater.

Globe Playhouse –

an elaborate theater built in 1599 which includes various sections: hell, heaven, rear stage, music gallery, and huts.

Groundlings –

the commoners who stood and watched the plays in the courtyard presentations.

Modern Theater –

began in the late 1800s and is characterized by events and characters based on reality; inspired by the realism movement in art and literature.

Participatory drama – 

where actors mingle and interact with members of the audience

Ten-minute plays –

a short play which is performed in no more than ten minutes

Kabuki dramas –

Japanese dance drama characterized by ornate costumes and make-up

No plays –

highly stylized Japanese performance art from which Kabuki dramas evolved

Theater of the Absurd –

a movement in drama beginning around the 1960s where exaggerated characters and action using symbols seems absurd.

Surrealistic stage setting –

the use of colors, props, costumes, lighting, music, and/or scenery that are outside the boundaries of everyday usage such as usual shapes and colors of walls or furniture.

Expressionistic stage setting –

the creation of scenery, costumes, props, and/or lighting in an exaggerated way that reflects the theme or mood of the play such as drab dark colors and lighting to show the depressed mood of the characters.