Grammar

Grammar is a set of rules that govern the use of words and sentence composition. Grammar includes rules for punctuation, sentence structure, and spelling.

Clearly, without a standardized way of using words and putting sentences together, there would be great difficulty in communicating. People learn grammar as they learn language. It becomes so natural that people often do not realize they are using words according to a specific pattern or organization. For example, in English, a noun – verb – object/indirect object sentence structure is used. Adjectives are placed before the nouns they modify. In the English language, verbs change tense to indicate when an action has happened, is happening, or will happen.

Maintaining a consistent and academic use of grammar will help you communicate your ideas more clearly. For example, a period indicates the end of a sentence, and an apostrophe shows possession and contraction. Additionally, words must be spelled consistently to clearly define their meaning.

Punctuation

What is Punctuation?

Punctuation tells the reader how to read a sentence to understand its meaning.

A period tells the reader where the sentence ends. A comma separates the sentence into meaningful parts, such as separating an introductory word or words from the main clause and marking off items in a series. A comma also tells the reader what information is incidental and not necessary to the main idea. Commas are used to separate a signal phrase from a quote.

An apostrophe tells the reader that something belongs to someone or something. Apostrophes also indicate if a letter or letters were omitted from a word. Quotation marks tell the reader which words were spoken or written by someone else.

These are just some examples of why punctuation is so important. However, to use grammar to communicate more effectively, we must learn the rules. Grammar usage is a skill, which means practice is required to learn and improve.

Commas

What is a Comma?

A comma is a punctuation mark that indicates a pause between parts of a sentence. It is also used to separate items in a list and to mark the thousands place in a large numeral.

Example: While Tony mowed the lawn, Nick boiled a pot of pasta.
Example: Nick added garlic, onions, and fresh basil to the pasta sauce.
Example: The spaghetti recipe Nick was following had over 1,000 positive reviews online.

Commas Before Coordinating Conjunctions

How to Use Commas Before Coordinating Conjunctions

A coordinating conjunction is a word that connects different parts of a sentence. Commas must be placed before coordinating conjunctions that separate independent clauses—word groups that can function as complete sentences.

Example: The mother went to the store, but the child went to school.

In the above example, “The mother went to the store” is an independent clause, and “the child went to school” is also an independent clause. Both word groups can function as complete sentences. For this reason, a comma is placed before the coordinating conjunction but.

Do not use a comma before a coordinating conjunction if it belongs to a word group that is not an independent clause.

Example: The mother went to the store but not the bank.

In the above example, “The mother went to the store” is an independent clause, but the phrase “not the bank” is not an independent clause. Therefore, the phrase "not the bank" cannot function as a complete sentence. For this reason, a comma is not placed before the coordinating conjunction but.

Items in a Series

How to Use Commas with Items in a Series

Commas for two items in a series

Do not use a comma if a sentence contains a list of only two items.

Example: I like apples and bananas.
Example: I like to paint and sing.

Do not use a comma if a sentence contains a list of only two items, even if each item is described with many words.

Example: I like apples baked with walnuts and bananas topped with chocolate and whipped cream.

In the above example, no commas are required. Even if many words are being used to describe items in a list, from a grammatical standpoint there are only two items being listed: 1. apples [baked with walnuts] and 2. bananas [topped with chocolate and whipped cream].

Commas for three or more items in a series

Use commas to separate three or more items in a series.

Example: The café's smoothie flavors are apple, mango, strawberry, and banana.
Example: The café's smoothie flavors are apple, mango, strawberry and banana.

In the first example, a comma is placed before the last item in the list, and banana. In the second example, a comma is not placed before the last item in the list. Both sentences are grammatically correct. A comma that comes before the last item in a list is known as a serial comma or Oxford comma.

The Oxford comma is used to make sure that lists are not confusing. In the example above, without the use of the Oxford comma, a reader may think that the café sells a strawberry and banana smoothie, when the café actually sells a strawberry smoothie and a banana smoothie.

In MLA style, always use the Oxford comma.

Commas for two adjectives in a series

If two adjectives modify the same word, separate them with a comma only if the adjectives are coordinate. A set of coordinate adjectives are adjectives of equal importance.

Example: The hot, humid day seemed to drag on forever.
Example: The humid, hot day seemed to drag on forever.

In the above examples, both pairs of adjectives are coordinate because they modify the same nouns and are of equal importance.

A set of two coordinate adjectives can also be separated by the word and rather than by a comma.

Example: The hot and humid day seemed to drag on forever.
Example: The humid and hot day seemed to drag on forever.

If the set of two adjectives are not coordinate, do not use a comma.

Correct: The juggler used three yellow balls.
Incorrect: The juggler used yellow three balls.

In the above examples, three and yellow are not considered of equal importance grammatically, so the set of adjectives is not coordinate. Only three yellow balls is correct. Since the set of adjectives is not coordinate, a comma is not used to separate them.

Coordinate adjectives are especially tricky for English-language learners, because proper usage is determined more by context than by hard and fast rules. Refer to the Parts of Speech section for more information about coordinate adjectives.

Commas for three or more adjectives in a series

Use commas to separate three or more adjectives in a series. The coordinating conjunction and may be placed before the final adjective.

Example: The hot, humid, rainy day seemed to drag on forever.
Example: The hot, humid, and rainy day seemed to drag on forever.

Both examples above are grammatically correct. Generally, the use of and before the final adjective is more common in both informal and academic writing.

Commas After Introductions

Use Commas After Introductions

Sometimes, your writing may include an introductory word, clause, or phrase at the beginning of a sentence to provide additional context. A comma should generally be used to separate an introduction from the independent clause of a sentence.

Introductory words

Use a comma after introductory words like however, nonetheless, or furthermore.

Example: Film production was halted due to the pandemic. Nonetheless, the actors continued to rehearse their roles.

Introductory clauses

If a dependent clause comes before an independent clause in a sentence, use a comma to separate the clauses. Do not use a comma if the independent clause comes first in the sentence.

Example: Once the snowstorm ended, we had an epic snowball fight.
Example: We had an epic snowball fight once the snowstorm ended.

Introductory phrases

Use a comma to separate a long introductory phrase from the independent clause in a sentence.

Example: Before the biggest snowstorm of the year, we made sure to gather firewood.

If an introductory phrase is only a few words long, comma usage is optional.

Example: Before the snowstorm, we made sure to gather firewood.
Example: Before the snowstorm we made sure to gather firewood.

To Separate Unnecessary Words

How to Use Commas to Separate Unnecessary Words

Unnecessary words

Sentences sometimes contain words that provide additional context or information but are not strictly necessary for the sentence to function.

For a word to be considered unnecessary, it must:

Not serve a critical role in the grammar of the sentence
Not serve a critical role in the meaning of the sentence

Use a comma to separate unnecessary words from the rest of a sentence.

Here is an example of a sentence with an unnecessary word.

Example: She stayed home.
Example: She, however, stayed home.

In the examples above, She stayed home functions as a complete sentence, so the word however is not grammatically necessary. Both examples above convey the same information, so however is not critical to the meaning of the sentence either.

Words that are grammatically necessary

Here is an example of a sentence where a word is grammatically necessary.

Correct: However hungry the dog may be, don’t feed him your hamburger.
Incorrect: However, hungry the dog may be, don’t feed him your hamburger.
Incorrect: Hungry the dog may be, don’t feed him your hamburger.

In the examples above, the word However is necessary for the grammar of the sentence to work. The word However should not be separated by a comma.

Words that are necessary for meaning

Here is an example where a word is necessary for the meaning of a sentence. Imagine that you have two sisters, Catherine and Julie.

Example: Your sister came to visit you.
Example: Your sister Catherine came to visit you.

In the above example, the word Catherine is not separated by commas because it is critical to the meaning of the sentence. Without the word Catherine, it is not clear which sister came to visit.

Now imagine that Catherine is your only sister.

Example: Your sister came to visit you.
Example: Your sister, Catherine, came to visit you.

In the above example, the word Catherine is separated by commas because it is not critical to the meaning of the sentence. There is only one person that your sister could be referring to.

Other Uses of Commas

Other Uses of Commas to Consider

Numbers

Use a comma to separate the thousands place in a numeral.

Example: 1,000
Example: 30,000
Example: 999,999,999

Remember that different style guides have different rules on when to use a numeral and when to use the word form of a number (in other words, 10 instead of ten).

Place-names

Use commas to separate place-name elements from each other. A place-name element is a location name like a street address, city, state, country, or campus.

Example: I visited my friend in Atlanta, Georgia, a few days ago.
Example: I visited my friend in Paris, France, a few years ago.
Example: Pittsburgh, PA, is home to some of the nation’s largest steel mills.
Example: I presented at a conference at the University of South Florida, Tampa, on the topic of sustainability.

When multiple place-names are listed together in a sentence, a comma should come after the last place-name element, unless it is the last word in the sentence.

Example: I went to the campus bookstore at 2727 Mansfield Blvd., Wesley Chapel, Florida, to purchase textbooks for my class.

Do not use a comma if there is only one place-name.

I visited my friend in Atlanta a few days ago.
I presented at a conference at the University of South Florida on the topic of sustainability.
I went to the campus bookstore at 2727 Mansfield Blvd. to purchase textbooks for my class.

No matter which style guide you are following, the numbers in a place-name should be represented by numerals.

Dates

Use a comma for dates expressed in month-day-year format. When this date format is used in a sentence, a comma should come after the year, unless it is the last word in the sentence.

Example: Comic book writer Stan Lee was born on December 28, 1922, and died on November 12, 2018.

Do not use a comma for dates expressed in day-month-year format.

Example: Comic book writer Stan Lee was born on 28 December 1922 and died on 12 November 2018.

When using a month and a year in a sentence or a season and a year in a sentence, do not separate the elements of the date with a comma.

The so-called "Y2K bug” that was supposed to cripple computer systems on January 2000 was vastly overblown.
I graduated at the end of spring 2022.

No matter which style guide you are following, the numbers in a date should be represented by numerals.

Separating signal phrases from sentence quotes

A signal phrase identifies who is speaking when a quote is used in a sentence. Use commas to separate signal phrases from their quotes.

If a signal phrase comes after a quote, place the comma before the end quotation mark.

Example: “There will be an earthquake along the Santa Barbara fault within the next ten years,” according to Morelli.

If a signal phrase comes before a quote, place the comma before the first quotation mark.

Example: According to Morelli, “There will be an earthquake along the Santa Barbara fault within the next ten years.”

If a signal phrase interrupts a single quoted sentence, follow both of the rules above.

Example: “There will be an earthquake,” according to Morelli, “along the Santa Barbara fault line within the next ten years.”

Semicolons and Colons

What is a Semicolon?

A semicolon is a form of punctuation that plays a role halfway between a comma and a period. Semicolons can be used to connect two independent clauses into a single sentence if they have a strong relation to one another. Semicolons can also be used to list items in a series if the items already include commas.

Semicolons to connect independent clauses

An independent clause is a group of words that can function as a complete sentence. If you have two sentences and the first one ends with a period, you can join them into one sentence using a semicolon.

Do not capitalize the first word that comes after a semicolon unless it is a proper noun.

Example: A single death is a tragedy. A million deaths are a statistic.
Example: A single death is a tragedy; a million deaths are a statistic.
Example: America’s national bird is the bald eagle. Canada’s is the gray jay.
Example: America’s national bird is the bald eagle; Canada’s is the gray jay.

If a compound sentence is connected by a comma and a coordinating conjunction, the comma and conjunction can be replaced by a semicolon.

Example: Maisy went to the carnival, and she had the time of her life.
Example: Maisy went to the carnival; she had the time of her life.

Semicolons and items in a series

Semicolons are used to separate more than two items in a series when there is a comma in one or more of the items.

Example: Linda went to Sparta, Georgia; Troy, New York; and Paris, North Carolina.

In the above example, Linda went to three different places.

Without the semicolons, the sentence would read as follows:

Example: Linda went to Sparta, Georgia, Troy, New York, and Paris, North Carolina.

In the above example, Linda went to five different places.

What is a Colon?

Colons are a form of punctuation used to introduce a relevant item, series of items, or quote into a sentence. Like the semicolon, a colon can only come after an independent clause in a sentence. Unlike the semicolon, the words that come after a colon do not need to be an independent clause.

Here are some examples of how to use a colon in a sentence.

Colon to introduce a single item

Example: One food item from the Western Hemisphere completely changed Korean cuisine: the chili pepper.

Colon to introduce items in a series

Example: I have so many allergies: nuts, dairy, dust, dogs, cats, and bees.
Example: I’ve traveled all over the world: Canada, Turkey, China, and Brazil.

Colon to introduce a quote

He ended his presentation with the words of Mister Spock: “Live long and prosper.”

Apostrophes

When to Use Apostrophes

Apostrophes are used to show possession and omissions in contractions. An apostrophe is also used when referring to the plural form of a lowercase letter.

Example: Matthew’s coat was very warm. (Possession)
Example: I couldn’t care less. (Omission in a contraction)
Example: The book contained a printing error that turned all its h’s into b’s. (Plural form of a lowercase letter)

Contractions

How to Use Contractions

A contraction is used when two words are joined, leaving out one or two letters. Place an apostrophe in place of the missing letter(s).

Example: did not – didn’t
Example: should have – should’ve
Example: it is – it's

Possession

How to Show Possession

When a noun belongs to another noun, use an apostrophe to show possession. There are different rules for possession depending on whether the noun is singular or plural.

Possession for singular nouns

Add an apostrophe and the letter s (’s) to indicate possession in a singular noun.

Example: The coat belongs to the girl – the girl’s coat
Example: The shoes belong to Kelly – Kelly’s shoes

Add an apostrophe and the letter s (’s) even when a singular noun ends in s.

Example: The car belongs to Charles – Charles’s car
Example: The house belongs to Bill Jones – Bill Jones’s house

Note: Instructors and style guides sometimes accept the use of an apostrophe without an s when a singular noun ends in s (Charles’ car, Bill Jones’ house). However, this style choice is not always accepted, so it is safer to use an apostrophe and an s for all singular nouns.

Possession for plural nouns

If a plural noun does not end in an s, add an apostrophe and the letter s (’s).

Example: The rights of women – women’s rights
Example: The department for children – children’s department

If a plural noun ends in an s, add an apostrophe but do not add the letter s.

Example: The coat belongs to the girls – the girls’ coats
Example: The house belongs to the Smiths – the Smiths’ house

Plural Form of a Lowercase Letter

How to Use the Plural Form of a Lowercase Letter

Use an apostrophe and the letter s (’s) when pluralizing a lowercase letter.

Example: The book contained a printing error that turned all its h’s into b’s.

Do not use an apostrophe and the letter s (’s) to pluralize uppercase letters.

Example: Professor Vanya holds multiple PhDs.
Example: Aiden earned all As in his classes last semester.
Example: The Ps are my favorite section of the library.

Problems with Apostrophes

How to Address Problems with Apostrophes

There are some uses of the apostrophe that can be troublesome and confusing. Here are guidelines for some of these common issues.

Do not use an apostrophe to make a noun plural.

Correct: The dogs ran in the yard.
Incorrect: The dog’s ran in the yard.
Correct: These books are on sale.
Incorrect: These book’s are on sale.

Do not use apostrophes to form the plural of an abbreviation or number.

Correct: EMTs
Incorrect: EMT’s
Correct: the 1800s
Incorrect: the 1800’s

Use an apostrophe to show possession for the plural form of a year.

Example: The 90s’ grunge rock scene is coming back in style.
Example: The effects of the 1960s’ Civil Rights Movement are still being felt today.

Do not confuse contractions with similar sounding words.

Its and It’s

The word it’s is the contraction of it is or it has.

Example: It is a beautiful day.
Example: It’s a beautiful day.
Example: It has been nice to know you.
Example: It’s been nice to know you.

The word its is the possessive form of it.

Example: My car needs to have its engine checked.
Example: Its steering wheel just came off, too.

Who’s and Whose

The word who’s is the contraction of who is.

Example: Who is coming to the party?
Example: Who’s coming to the party?

The word whose is the possessive form of who.

Example: Whose car alarm keeps going off?
Example: Whose music do you like best?

They’re, Their, and There

The word they’re is the contraction of they are.

Example: They are going to see the movie.
Example: They’re going to see the movie.

The word there is the possessive form of they.

Example: They forgot their keys.

The word there is a demonstrative that shows location.

Example: I left my glasses over there.

Would’ve, Could’ve, and Should’ve

The words would’ve, could’ve, and should’ve are contractions with the word have. These words are sometimes mistakenly rendered as would of, could of, and should of.

Would of, could of, and should of are considered grammatically incorrect. Always use have or the contracted form ’ve instead.

Correct: I would have gone to the mall if you’d invited me.
Correct: I would’ve gone to the mall if you’d invited me.
Incorrect: I would of gone to the mall if you’d invited me.
Correct: I could have gone directly to college, but I chose to take a gap year first.
Correct: I could’ve gone directly to college, but I chose to take a gap year first.
Incorrect: I could of gone directly to college, but I chose to take a gap year first.
Correct: I should have asked how my sister was doing.
Correct: I should’ve asked how my sister was doing.
Incorrect: I should of asked how my sister was doing.

End Punctuation

What is End Punctuation?

End punctuation refers to punctuation marks used to signal the end of a sentence. The three types of end punctuation are periods, question marks, and exclamation points. In academic writing, the period is the most common form of end punctuation.

Periods

How to Use Periods

A period is used to indicate that a sentence is a statement or a command.

Statement: I completed my homework on time.
Command: You need to finish your homework before it’s due.

Periods with abbreviations

Periods are used in some abbreviations. When an abbreviation with a period is used at the end of a sentence, don’t use an extra period to end the sentence.

Example: I asked her to come at 10 a.m.

Periods with quotation marks

Periods should be placed inside a quote.

Correct: Morticia said, “The graveyard is very beautiful.”
Incorrect: Morticia said, “The graveyard is very beautiful”.

Use a comma instead of a period if the end of a quote is not the end of the sentence.

Correct: “The graveyard is very beautiful,” Morticia said.
Incorrect: “The graveyard is very beautiful.” Morticia said.

Periods with parentheses

Sometimes parentheses come at the end of a sentence, such as when citing a source or making a side comment. Punctuation should always come after the end of the parentheses.

Example: The study measured “cooperative play in baby kittens” (Jones 1).
Example: The art exhibition was a huge success (thanks largely to Gerard’s help).

Question Marks

How to Use Question Marks

Question marks are used at the end of questions. When there is a question mark, there should not also be a period since the question mark is the end punctuation.

Sometimes, a sentence that is a question has some quoted words. The question mark still goes at the end of the sentence:

Example: Does anyone really know whether "the earth will be impacted by a meteor in the near future"?

If there is a quoted question in a sentence, then the question mark goes inside the quotation marks:

Example: He asked, “Who is going?”

Sometimes, there is a question about whether a sentence contains a direct question.

Example: He asked about who was going.

With this phrasing, there is no direct question. It is an indirect question. Question marks should not be used.

Question marks can also be used for rhetorical questions – questions used for persuasion.

Example: The earth has been gradually warming since the end of the last Ice Age. Are humans really speeding up this warming trend or is it just part of the natural process?

Exclamation Points

How to Use Exclamation Points

An exclamation point is used to show strong emphasis or importance.

Example: “Put down the box!” the woman yelled.

Ordinarily, we would use a comma to separate out the words that say who says a quote (a signal tag). However, a comma is not used next to an exclamation point.

Exclamation points are rarely used in research writing. When it is used in a direct quote, only one exclamation point is used. Don’t add additional exclamation points to be more emphatic.

Correct: Stop!
Incorrect: Stop!!

Problems with Punctuation

Other Punctuation Issues

Comma splices and run-on sentences often confuse a reader.

Comma Splices

A comma splice is a grammatical error that occurs when a comma is used to incorrectly combine two independent clauses into a single sentence.

Here is an example of a comma splice.

Incorrect: I climbed up the mountain, the view at the top was breathtaking.

A comma splice can be fixed by separating the two independent clauses into two sentences.

Correct: I climbed up the mountain. The view at the top was breathtaking.

A comma splice can be fixed by separating the two independent clauses with a semicolon.

Correct: I climbed up the mountain; the view at the top was breathtaking.

A comma splice can be fixed by separating the two independent clauses with a comma and a coordinating conjunction.

Correct: I climbed up the mountain, and the view at the top was breathtaking.

Run-on Sentences

A run-on sentence is a grammatical error that occurs when punctuation is missing at the end of a sentence, causing it to fuse with the sentence that comes after it.

Here is an example of a run-on sentence.

Incorrect: I climbed up the mountain the view at the top was breathtaking.

A run-on sentence can be fixed by separating the two independent clauses into two sentences.

Correct: I climbed up the mountain. The view at the top was breathtaking.

A run-on sentence can be fixed by separating the two independent clauses with a semicolon.

Correct: I climbed up the mountain; the view at the top was breathtaking.

A run-on sentence can be fixed by separating the two independent clauses with a comma and a coordinating conjunction.

Correct: I climbed up the mountain, and the view at the top was breathtaking.

Quotation Marks

How to Use Quotation Marks

Quotation marks are used to quote someone’s exact words. They are also used for the titles of short works.

Quotes

A quote presents someone’s exact words.

Example: The cartoon character Bugs Bunny is known for his catchphrase, “What’s up, Doc?”

Signal phrases often give quotes context. A signal phrase shows who is speaking when a quote is included in a sentence. Signal phrases can be placed at the beginning of a sentence, the middle of a sentence, or the end of a sentence.

Example: Gilbert said, “No matter what it takes, I’ll finish clown school.”
Example: “No matter what it takes,” Gilbert said, “I’ll finish clown school.”
Example: “No matter what it takes, I’ll finish clown school,” Gilbert said.

Full Sentence Quotes

A full-sentence quote presents an entire quoted sentence.

Example: "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country."

When using a full-sentence quote in an essay, avoid placing the quote in the middle of a paragraph without any context.

Incorrect: Many Americans sign up for the armed forces. "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country." For those driven by patriotism, serving is the highest honor.
Correct: Many Americans sign up for the armed forces. John F. Kennedy stirred Americans to service when he said, "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country." For those driven by patriotism, serving is the highest honor.

Partial Quotes

A partial quote presents a segment of a quoted sentence. With a partial sentence quote, do not use a comma, and do not capitalize the first word inside the quotation marks.

Original quote: “No matter what it takes, I’ll finish clown school.”
Partial quote: Gilbert said that he would finish clown school “no matter what it takes.”

Quotes and punctuation

Periods and commas that are part of a quote should be placed inside the quotation marks.

Example: He said, "It will rain today."
Example: “It will rain today,” he said.

If a quote itself is a question or an exclamation, place the punctuation inside the quotation marks.

Example: She asked, “Will it rain today?”
Example: The student shouted, “I’m graduating!”

If the sentence as a whole is a question or an exclamation, place the punctuation outside the quotation marks.

Example: Do you really think you’ll find your legendary “City of Gold”?
Example: She said that I’m “cute as a button”!

Titles

When to Use Quotation Marks in Titles

Use quotation marks for the titles of short works. Short works are items that are usually published in a larger work or collection. Common examples include songs, poems, pages from websites, and articles from periodicals (journals/magazines/newspapers).

Example for a Journal article: "Empathetic Approaches to Nursing"
Example for a Song: "Bad to the Bone"
Example for a Poem: "A Supermarket in California"
Example for a Web page: “Eleven Secrets to Improving Your Essay”

Use italics for standalone works such as books, plays, online databases, periodicals (journals/magazines/newspapers), and websites.

Example for a Book: Moby Dick
Example for a Play: Fences
Example for a Website: CNN.com
Example for a Periodical: The New Yorker

Single Quotation Marks

When to Use Single Quotation Marks

Use single quotation marks for quotes inside of quotes. Use apostrophes to serve as single quotation marks. Single quotation marks follow the same rules as regular quotation marks.

Example: The professor said, “Read the article entitled ‘How to Grow Hydroponic Tomatoes.'”
Example: In her essay on creativity, the author states, “According to Sigmund Freud, dreams are ‘the royal road to the unconscious,’ and new research is proving him right.”

Long Quotes for MLA

How to Format Long Quotes

For MLA style, if you are quoting more than four lines (not sentences), do not use quotation marks. Indent the quote one inch from the left margin, and use a colon instead of a comma for any introductory words.

Here is an example of a long quote:

In a famous essay, Helen Keller explains her adventurous take on life: Security is mostly a superstition. It does not exist in nature, nor do the children of men as a whole experience it. Avoiding danger is no safer in the long run than outright exposure. Life is either a daring adventure, or nothing.

Other Marks

Other Marks to Consider

In this section you will learn the proper names for, and how to appropriately use, the various types of common punctuation including: brackets, ellipsis, dashes, hyphens, italics, parentheses and slashes.

Parentheses

When to Use Parentheses

Parentheses and additional information for context

Use parentheses to provide additional information or context that is separate from a sentence’s main idea.

Example: Godzilla is a giant monster (known in Japan as a kaiju) made famous by the 1954 Japanese film of the same name.

Use parentheses to provide contextual information, such as the years a historical person was alive.

Example: Georgia Hamilton (1903-2001) was born on a rural farm and witnessed tremendous technological changes over her lifetime.

Parentheses for in-text citations

Use parentheses at the end of a sentence to provide an in-text citation.

Example: In the opening line of Moby Dick, Ishmael says, “Call me Ishmael” (Melville 1).

Brackets

How to Use Brackets

Brackets and parentheses

Use brackets to avoid placing parentheses inside parentheses.

Example: The members of the Koreshan Unity (established by Cyrus Teed [1839-1908] as a utopian community) believed that the Earth was surrounded by a giant, hollow sphere.

Brackets and changes made to quotes

Use brackets to indicate when you have changed the exact words in an author’s quote.

Example: "In anticipation of an attack, he [Julius Caesar] ordered his men to guard the city gates."

Brackets and ellipses

If you are quoting material that already has an ellipsis in the text, then any ellipses you add to the quote should be placed in brackets.

Original text: Fred sat thoughtfully for a while before saying, “I don’t know why …. But I have a feeling, a very certain and unshakable feeling, that you and I are about to become best friends.”
Correct: Early in the novel, the protagonist says, “I don’t know why …. But I have a feeling [. . .] that you and I are about to become best friends.”

[sic]

The word sic comes from the Latin phrase sic erat scriptum, which means “thus was it written.” It is used to show that an error in a quote is not your mistake and was present in the original text.

Use [sic] to indicate when you are providing a quote that has an error in it.

Example: An angry Twitter user told me to “keep my dogg [sic] on a shorter leash.”

Slashes

How to Use Slashes

Slashes to indicate or

Use slashes instead of the word or.

Example: If or when Chet comes home, he’s going to be grounded for life.
Example: If/when Chet comes home, he’s going to be grounded for life.

Slashes and quoting poetry

Use slashes with a space on either side to separate quoted lines of poetry.

Example: In Sonnet 43, Elizabeth Barrett Browning writes, “How do I love thee? Let me count the ways. / I love thee with the depth and breadth and height / My soul can reach…”

Slashes and opposing pairs

Use slashes when discussing nouns that operate as opposing pairs.

Example: In the film Blade Runner, the authentic/fake binary is explored by following the lives of androids.

When opposing pairs are used as a compound adjective, use hyphens rather than slashes.

Example: The nature-nurture debate is an active topic in science.

Hyphens and Dashes

How to Use Hyphens (-), En Dashes (–), and Em Dashes (—)

In this section, we will be discussing the hyphen, the en dash, and the em dash. Most writers recognize the hyphen, but not everyone is familiar with the en dash or em dash. These are known as special characters because they do not appear on most standard keyboards.

You may come across en dashes and em dashes in academic and professional writing, and at some point, you may be required to use them. This section will discuss these special characters and provide instruction on how to type them in both Microsoft and Apple products.

How to type en dashes and em dashes

En dashes and em dashes are considered special characters, so they do not appear on a standard keyboard. Many word processors, like Microsoft Word, will automatically detect when two hyphens (--) are used without spaces to connect two words and will attempt to convert them to the correct dash character. There are also shortcuts that can be used to insert dashes.

En dash:
- Mac shortcut: Option + Hyphen (-)
- Windows shortcut: Alt + 0150 on numpad
- Microsoft Word shortcut: Alt + Hyphen (-) on number pad
Em dash:
- Mac shortcut: Shift + Option + Hyphen (-)
- Windows shortcut: Alt + 0151 on numpad
- Microsoft Word shortcut: Ctrl + Alt + Hyphen (-) on number pad

Hyphens (-)

Hyphens are used in coequal nouns, compound adjectives, and some compound nouns. They are also used to hyphenate compound words together when a prefix or suffix is added.

Hyphens in coequal nouns
When describing someone or something with multiple nouns, if the nouns are of equal importance, they may be presented as coequal nouns by connecting the nouns with hyphens.

Here are examples of coequal nouns:

Example: Taylor Swift is a singer and songwriter.
Example: Taylor Swift is a singer-songwriter.
Example: Jack has a career as an animator, illustrator, and videographer.
Example: Jack has a career as an animator-illustrator-videographer.

Hyphens in compound adjectives

A compound adjective is a single adjective that is made of multiple words.

Here are examples of compound adjectives.

Example: He is a world-class violinist.
Example: I took a fast-acting painkiller.

Hyphens in compound nouns

A compound noun is a noun that is made of multiple words. Some compound nouns, like ice cream, do not require hyphens, while others do.

Here are examples of compound nouns that require hyphens.

Example: I am so glad that I actually like my mother-in-law.
Example: Julie and Sarah were runners-up in the contest.
Example: The museum called the police once they found out about the break-in.

Hyphenating compound words when adding a prefix or suffix

When a prefix or suffix is added to a compound noun or compound adjective, the word group should be hyphenated for clarity. This is true even if the compound words are not normally connected by a hyphen.

Consider the compound noun fine arts, which is usually not hyphenated. If the suffix -based is added, then fine arts becomes fine-arts-based. This is done to clarify that the suffix -based is modifying the fine arts, not just arts.

Example: She attended the art school for its fine-arts-based curriculum.
Example: She attended the art school for its curriculum, which was based in the fine arts.

Example: She attended the art school for its fine arts-based curriculum.
Example: She attended the art school for its arts-based curriculum, which she thought was fine, but nothing special.

Note: In handwritten or typewriter-written documents, a hyphen is often used at the end of a line of text to continue a word on to the next line. This practice is generally not followed for contemporary academic writing.

En Dashes (–)

The en dash is used instead of a hyphen when connecting a prefix or a suffix to a proper noun that is more than one word. When using an en dash to connect a prefix or a suffix to a word, do not put any spaces before or after the en dash.

Example: The movie starred an Academy Award–winning actor.

Em Dashes (—)

The em dash is used when an idea is being interrupted, when clarification is needed, when elaboration is needed, or when items are being listed in a sentence. The em dash should be used sparingly in your writing.

Em dashes for interruptions:

Use em dashes when you are interrupting the main idea of a sentence. If the interruption occurs at the end of the sentence, use a single em dash. If the interruption occurs in the middle of a sentence, put em dashes before and after the interruption. Do not put spaces before or after an em dash.

Example: I want to be a landscape photographer and have my work featured on the cover of National Geographic—even though my parents want me to go to medical school.
Example: My brother—who got his medical degree as a foot doctor—told me to pursue my dreams.

Em dashes for clarification:

Use em dashes to clarify meaning when commas would be too ambiguous.

Example: Shakespeare never reveals if the symptoms of Hamlet’s madness—paranoia, violence, and visions—are the real thing or a trick he’s pulling on the court.

Consider if the sentence were written only using commas:

Example: Shakespeare never reveals if the symptoms of Hamlet’s madness, paranoia, violence, and visions are the real thing or a trick he’s pulling on the court.

Without em dashes, the meaning of the sentence is more grammatically ambiguous. When only using commas, the word madness could be part of the list rather than the category under which the other words are listed.

Em dashes for elaboration:

Use em dashes when elaborating on an idea with words like for example or namely.

Example: The restaurant offered specialty burgers based on world cuisines—for example, a Korean kimchi burger.
Example: The bowl of spaghetti was knocked all over the kitchen floor. The principal offender—namely, Mister Fluffers—was my roommate’s adopted cat.

Em dashes for lists:

Em dashes can be used for lists instead of colons.

Example: The soft-serve ice cream stand offered all the usual flavors—vanilla, chocolate, strawberry, and swirl.

Italics

How to Use Italics

Italics and underlining are considered identical in many style guidelines, and different publication styles have different preferences on which to use. Do not underline in MLA style.

Italics for long, published works

Use italics for names of long, published works such as magazines, journals, newspapers, and websites.

Example: Scientific American (magazine)
Example: Academic Search Complete (database)
Example: Tampa Bay Times (newspaper)
Example: Ask.com (website)

Italics for artwork and vessels

Use italics for names of artwork and names of ships and aircraft.

Example: Mona Lisa
Example: USS Enterprise
Example: Enola Gay

Italics for special uses of words and letters

Use italics for words and letters used as words and letters.

Example: She learned her ABCs.
Example: My phone number has a lot of fours in it.

Use italics when referring to a word, especially when introducing or defining it as a term.

Example: The word truthiness was coined by Stephen Colbert.
Example: Macbeth’s tragic flaw, or hamartia, is his political ambition.

Use italics for a foreign word; use quotation marks for its translation.

Example: The Russian word krasnaya can mean either “red” or “beautiful.”
Example: Mano-a-mano is a Spanish term meaning “hand to hand.”

Since so many foreign words have been incorporated into English and are now considered English words, there is not always a clear distinction between an English word and a foreign word. A dictionary will often note if an entry is considered a foreign term by including descriptions like “a French phrase.”

Italics should not be used to convey emphasis in academic writing.

Ellipsis

How to Use an Ellipses

An ellipsis (plural ellipses) is used to show that words have been omitted within a quote. An ellipsis signals to the reader that your usage of a quote alters it from its original form or context. In MLA style, an ellipsis consists of three spaced periods.

An ellipsis is not needed when quoting a word or a phrase, as readers generally understand that these are not the full original text.

Original text: The inner machinations of my mind are an enigma.
Correct: In the SpongeBob SquarePants episode “The Secret Box,” Patrick Star states that the operations of his mind “are an enigma.”
Incorrect: In the SpongeBob SquarePants episode “The Secret Box,” Patrick Star states that the operations of his mind “. . . are an enigma.”

Ellipses in the middle of quotes

Use an ellipsis if you are omitting material from within a single sentence of your quote.

Original text: One morning, when Gregor Samsa woke from troubled dreams, he found himself transformed in his bed into a horrible vermin. He lay on his armour-like back, and if he lifted his head a little he could see his brown belly, slightly domed and divided by arches into stiff sections. The bedding was hardly able to cover it and seemed ready to slide off any moment. His many legs, pitifully thin compared with the size of the rest of him, waved about helplessly as he looked.
Example: Franz Kafka’s story The Metamorphosis begins by stating that “Gregor Samsa . . . found himself transformed in his bed into a horrible vermin” (1).

If your quote omits an entire sentence or more, use an ellipsis, but add a period before it.

Example: Franz Kafka’s story The Metamorphosis begins by stating, “One morning, when Gregor Samsa woke from troubled dreams, he found himself transformed in his bed into a horrible vermin. . . . His many legs, pitifully thin compared with the size of the rest of him, waved about helplessly as he looked” (1).

Ellipses at the end of quotes

If your quoted material appears to be a grammatically complete sentence, use an ellipsis to signal to the reader that there was more to the original text.

If an in-text citation comes directly after an ellipsis at the end of your quote, then include an ellipsis before the closing quotation mark and place a period at the end of the in-text citation.

Original text: The only people for me are the mad ones, the ones who are mad to live, mad to talk, mad to be saved, desirous of everything at the same time, the ones who never yawn or say a commonplace thing, but burn, burn, burn, like fabulous yellow roman candles exploding like spiders across the stars and in the middle you see the blue centerlight pop and everybody goes “Awww!”
Example: In On the Road, Jack Kerouac writes, “The only people for me are the mad ones . . .” (25).

If an in-text citation does not come directly after the ellipsis at the end of your quote, add a period before the ellipsis.

Example: On page 25 of On the Road, Jack Kerouac writes, “The only people for me are the mad ones. . . .”
Example: In On the Road, Jack Kerouac writes, “The only people for me are the mad ones. . . .” He goes on to describe how these people “burn” like fireworks (25).

Sentence Structure

What is Sentence Structure?

Composition is an important part of effective written communication. By developing a skillful writing style, writers can keep their readers’ attention while conveying important ideas clearly and accurately.

In this section, we will examine two fundamental topics in composition: sentence structure and parts of speech. We will also review the topic of sentence variety, which is a key element of skillful composition. Finally, we will take a look at some common issues students face in their writing and provide the tools necessary to identify and correct those problems.

Sentences

Effective written communication requires an understanding of the different parts of speech. The English language categorizes parts of speech by their function. An understanding of sentence structure is also critical for effective writing.

In this section, we will discuss the following parts of speech:

Nouns
Pronouns
Verbs
Adjectives
Adverbs
Prepositions
Conjunctions
Interjections

We will also cover these key parts of sentence structure:

Subjects
Predicates
Objects
Complements
Phrases
Clauses

Parts of Speech

What are Parts of Speech?

Words are categorized by their grammatical function. These categories are referred to as the parts of speech.

Listed below are the nine parts of speech:

Nouns
Pronouns
Verbs
Adverbs
Adjectives
Prepositions
Conjunctions
Articles
Interjections

Nouns

Nouns are words that refer to a person, place, thing, or idea.

Common nouns

Common nouns are nouns that refer to a general—rather than a specific—person, place, thing, or idea. A common noun should not be capitalized unless there is a grammatical reason to do so, such as the noun being the first word in a sentence.

Example: student, brother, firefighter (person)
Example: canyon, supermarket, country, outer space (place)
Example: pencil, car, dog, tree, nose, comet (thing)
Example: freedom, mathematics, taxation, democracy, communism (idea)

Some words function as multiple parts of speech.

Example: I looked up at the blue sky. (adjective)
Example: The blue of the ocean is filled with mystery. (noun)

Example: I run every morning before school starts. (verb)
Example: Every morning before school starts, I go for a run. (noun)

Proper nouns

Proper nouns are nouns that refer to a specific person, place, thing, or idea. A proper noun should generally be capitalized. Some proper nouns must also be italicized, such as the names of vessels and works of art. Refer to the Related Pages column for more information on capitalization and italicization.

Example: George Washington, President Washington (person)
Example: Paris, Disney World (place)
Example: Honda Civic, Mona Lisa, USS Enterprise, Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets (thing)
Example: Big Bang, Marxism (idea)

A noun can be used as a proper noun or as part of a proper noun when referring to something specific.

Example: He looked for advice on how to be a good father. (common noun)
Example: I waited in the living room for Father to return. (proper noun)

Example: She had to wake up early to take the bus to her high school. (common noun)
Example: She graduated from Plant High School. (proper noun)

Nouns that refer to ideas are sometimes treated as proper nouns. This is most common for principles like liberty, justice, or fortune or for natural phenomena like death, spring, or night. Generally, when ideas are treated as proper nouns, it is because they are being personified—being treated as if they were people.

Example: Slavery is an evil that Liberty cannot accept.
Example: I felt Death’s scythe swing at me and barely miss.
Example: After many cold months, Spring finally wrapped us in gentle warmth.

Plural nouns

Plural nouns are nouns that refer to multiple people, places, things, or ideas.

Refer to the Related Pages column for more information on how to pluralize nouns.

Example: actor – actors (person)
Example: plateau – plateaus (place)
Example: bus – buses (thing)
Example: monarchy – monarchies (idea)

Collective nouns

Collective nouns are nouns that refer to groups of people, places, things, or ideas. Collective nouns can be common nouns or proper nouns.

Collective common nouns:

Example: team, band, family, jury (people)
Example: mountain range, strip (places)
Example: herd, flock, collection, set (things)
Example: mathematics, literature, code (ideas)

Collective proper nouns:

Example: Americans, The Beatles, Metallica (people)
Example: Blue Ridge Mountains, the Seven Seas (places)
Example: The Criterion Collection, Goya’s Black Paintings (things)
Example: Ten Commandments, Four Noble Truths (ideas)

Context determines whether to treat a collective noun as a plural or singular form. If referring to a collective noun as a single entity, treat the collective noun as singular. If referring to a collective noun as a group of individuals, treat the collective noun as plural.

Example: My favorite band is The Beatles.
Example: The Beatles are talented and creative musicians.

Case

There are three cases: nominative (for subjects), objective (for objects), and possessive (for possessives)

The man chased the cat. subject He chased the cat.
The cat chased the man. object The cat chased him.
The cat is hiding from the man. object The cat is hiding from him.

That is my pen. possessive (adjective)
That is mine. possessive (pronoun)

Problem areas:
1. Compound Constructions

• My mother and I went to the store. I went to the store.
• She asked my brother and me to be quiet. She asked me to be quiet.
• She bought a chocolate bar for my brother and me. She bought it for me.

2. Comparisons

• My brother is taller than I. My brother is taller than I am.
• The movie scared my brother more than me. The movie scared me.
• His house is more expensive than mine. His house is more expensive than mine is.

3. Who vs. Whom

• Who knows the answer? (Subject) knows the answer.
• Whom do you love? Do you love (object)?
• The doctor helps whoever needs treatment. The doctor helps (subject) needs treatment.
• The doctor helps whomever he treats. The doctor treats (object).

Pronouns with Collective Nouns

Collective nouns are a group of several people or things, but are treated as a singular noun.

• The class turned in its work.
• The jury made its decision.
• The government should provide help to its people.
• Our team placed first in its division.

See Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement and Pronoun Reference

Pronouns

Pronouns are words that are used in place of nouns. Pronouns are used to avoid repetition or to discuss things that are not clearly defined. When a pronoun refers to a noun that comes before it, that noun is considered the pronoun’s antecedent. Pronouns can either be direct pronouns, which have antecedents, or indirect pronouns, which do not have antecedents.

Here is an example of a direct pronoun.

Example: James went to the store. James bought James’s favorite snacks.
Example: James went to the store. He bought his favorite snacks.

Here is an example of an indirect pronoun:

Example: Who wants to go to the party?

In the above example, there is no antecedent—the word Who does not refer to any noun in the sentence.

In this section, we will examine different types of pronouns.

Personal pronouns

Personal pronouns are used to refer to a noun (a person, place, thing, or idea). Three factors determine which personal pronoun should be used in a sentence: case, point of view, and whether the noun is singular or plural.

Case

Case refers to whether the pronoun is possessive and whether the pronoun is the sentence’s subject or one of its objects.

Subject: The boy chased the father. He chased the father.
Object: The boy chased the father. The boy chased him.
Possessive: The boy is the father’s son. The boy is his son.

Point of view

Point of view refers to whether the pronoun is in first person, second person, or third person perspective.

First person: I go to the store.
Second person: You go to the store.
Third person: He goes to the store. She goes to the store. They go to the store. It goes to the store.

Singular and plural forms

Singular pronouns refer to a single person, place, thing, or idea. Plural pronouns refer to multiple people, places, things, or ideas.

Singular: Jack goes to the mall. He goes to the mall.
Plural: Jack and I go to the mall. We go to the mall.

Reflexive and intensive pronouns

Reflexive pronouns

A reflexive pronoun is used when the object or complement in a sentence refers to the same noun that is in the subject. Use a reflexive pronoun when a noun is doing something to itself.

Example: I looked in the mirror and examined myself.
Example: Jack is teaching himself piano.

Intensive pronouns

An intensive pronoun is used immediately after a noun or pronoun for the purpose of emphasis. Reflexive and intensive pronouns use the same word form.

Example: The Black Knight was none other than King Arthur himself.
Example: Hemingway himself once sat at that very café table overlooking the sea.
Example: She herself could not care less either way.

Personal pronoun

Singular Personal Pronoun Table
Tense	Subject	Object	Possessive	Reflexive/ Intensive
First person	I	me	my, mine	myself
Second person	you	you	you, yours	yourself
Third person	he, she, they, it	him, her, them, it	his, her, hers, their, theirs, its	himself, herself, themself, themselves

Plural Personal Prounoun Table
Tense	Subject	Object	Possessive	Reflexive/ Intensive
First person	we	us	our, ours	ourselves
Second person	you	you	your, yours	yourselves
Third person	they	them	their, theirs	themselves

Singular they

They can be used as either a singular or plural pronoun. The singular they should be treated as plural for the purposes of verb forms.

Example: Sam has a pet cat. They have a pet cat.

The singular they takes the reflexive form of themselves.

Example: The student who caused this mess better clean up after themselves.

Nonbinary pronouns and neopronouns

Individuals who are nonbinary may use the singular they as a personal pronoun in place of she/her/hers or he/him/his. If a nonbinary individual uses they as a personal pronoun, the reflexive form themself may be used instead of themselves when referring to the nonbinary individual.

Example: Sam treated themself to ice cream.
Example: They treated themself to ice cream.

Neopronouns are personal pronouns that are used by some nonbinary individuals. Examples of neopronouns include zie/zir/zirs, sie/hir/hirs, and e/em/eir, among others. When referring to an individual who uses neopronouns, consult the source from which you are referring for guidance on which pronouns to use. You may choose to mention the individual’s preferred pronouns when introducing that individual within your text for the first time.

Example: Maia Kobabe (who uses e/em/eir pronouns) is a nonbinary cartoonist. Eir graphic memoir, Gender Queer, has been frequently challenged and banned in United States schools.

Reciprocal pronouns

A reciprocal pronoun is used when multiple people, places, things, or ideas are engaged in an exchange with one another. A reciprocal pronoun is used when nouns are doing something among themselves.

Here is a list of reciprocal pronouns:

each other
one another

Use each other or one another when one plural noun is involved in an exchange.

Example: The girls did each other’s braids.
Example: The bitter enemies fought one another to the death.

Use each other or one another when multiple nouns are involved in an exchange.

Example: Robin and Claire shared baking tips with one another.
Example: The tenant, the landlady, and the real estate company were all angry at each other.

Each other and one another may be used interchangeably.

Indefinite pronouns

An indefinite pronoun is used to talk about something that is not clearly defined. Some indefinite pronouns are singular and some are plural. There are also indefinite pronouns that may be singular or plural depending on context.

There are too many indefinite pronouns to list in this guide. Here are some common ones:

One
All
None
Some
Every
Few
Several
Many
More
Most
Nothing
Nowhere
Everywhere
Either
Neither

Some indefinite pronouns are singular:

Example: One can never be too careful these days.
Example: Nothing is set in stone.

Some indefinite pronouns are plural:

Example: Few are more dedicated than Jamie.
Example: Several attend the festival each year.

Some indefinite pronouns may be used in either singular or plural form, depending on context:

Example: All are accounted for.
Example: All is well.

Interrogative pronouns

Interrogative pronouns ask questions about a noun. Unlike personal pronouns, these pronouns do not have noun antecedents.

Listed below are the five (5) interrogative pronouns:

who
whom
whose
what
which

The interrogative pronouns who and whom are only used to refer to people.

Use who as the subject form in a sentence.

Example: Sally threw the ball to Jack.
Example: Who threw the ball to Jack?

Use whom as the object form in a sentence.

Example: Sally threw the ball to Jack.
Example: Sally threw the ball to whom?

Use whose as the possessive form in a sentence.

Example: Sally threw Nadine’s ball to Jack.
Example: Sally threw whose ball to Jack?

Use what as either the subject or object form in a sentence.

Example: The monkey threw the ball.
Example: What threw the ball?
Example: The monkey threw what?

Use which as either the subject or object form in a sentence.

Example: Which is the better model?
Example: Which did Jackie pick?

Relative pronouns

Relative pronouns connect the main clause of a sentence with a relative clause that modifies it. Relative pronouns are usually direct pronouns and have a noun antecedent in the sentence’s subject.

Here is a list of relative pronouns:

who
whom
whose
that
which

Use who when the noun antecedent is in the sentence’s subject. Use who to refer only to people.

Example: My brother took all the blame for the broken window.
Example: It was my brother who took all the blame for the broken window.

Use whom when the noun antecedent is one of the sentence’s objects. Use whom to refer only to people.

Example: Claire wrote a fan letter to Billie Eilish.
Example: It was Billie Eilish to whom Claire wrote a fan letter.
Example: The committee revealed the chess grandmaster to be a cheater.
Example: The chess grandmaster, whom the committee revealed to be a cheater, was banned for life.

Use whose when the relative clause indicates possession. Use whose to refer to people, places, things, or ideas.

Example: The boy’s lunch money was stolen by a bully.
Example: The boy, whose lunch money was stolen by a bully, has been crying all day.
Example: She couldn’t remember the musical’s name.
Example: She asked me if I knew about the musical whose name she couldn’t remember.

Use that when the relative clause is restrictive (also known as defining) and contains necessary information about the noun antecedent. Use that to refer to people, places, things, or ideas.

Example: He drank from the cup.
Example: He drank from the cup that wasn’t poisoned.

In the above examples, the restrictive relative clause that wasn’t poisoned is necessary information for the meaning of the sentence. He drank from the cup may function as a complete sentence, but the meaning is fundamentally changed without the relative clause that wasn’t poisoned.

Use which when the relative clause is non-restrictive (also known as non-defining) and does not contain necessary information about the noun antecedent. Use which to refer to places, things, or ideas, but not people.

Example: The snake bit him in the ankle.
Example: The snake, which had very colorful scales, bit him in the ankle.

In the above examples, the non-restrictive relative clause which had very colorful scales is not necessary information for the meaning of the sentence. Excluding which had very colorful scales does not fundamentally change the meaning of the sentence, as shown in the second example.

Demonstrative pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns are used instead of a noun when conveying specificity or location. Demonstrative pronouns may be singular or plural and may point to something close or something far.

Here is a list of demonstrative pronouns:

This
These
That
Those

Use this to convey closeness for a singular noun.

Example: The kitten in my arms is my kitten.
Example: This is my kitten.

Use these to convey closeness for a plural noun.

Example: The kittens in my arms are my kittens.
Example: These are my kittens.

Use that to convey distance for a singular noun.

Example: The kitten you are holding is my kitten.
Example: That is my kitten you are holding.

Use those to convey distance for a plural form.

Example: The kittens you are holding are my kittens.
Example: Those are my kittens you are holding.

Expletive pronouns

Expletive pronouns are vague indirect pronouns that are used in a subject or clause instead of a regular noun. Expletive pronouns fill the grammatical role of a noun while providing no extra meaning. Expletive pronouns are often used when describing the weather.

Here is a list of expletive pronouns:

It
There

Use it or there instead of a noun in a sentence’s subject:

Example: It is raining.
Example: There is a thunderstorm.

Use it or there instead of a noun in a sentence’s clause:

Example: Julie studied because it was the only way to become a better artist.
Example: Gollum knew there was no possible answer to Bilbo’s riddle.

Difficulties with pronouns

In this section, we will examine some of the common issues writers have with pronoun usage and explain how to avoid making errors.

I or me

The word I is used in a sentence’s subject. The word me is used in a sentence’s object. This remains true even in compound structures.

Example: Aiden and I gave the present to Julie.
Example: Julie gave the present to Aiden and me.

If you are unsure if you should use I or me because of a compound structure, try removing that compound structure to determine which form to use.

Example: Aiden and I gave the present to Julie.
Example: I gave the present to Julie.
Example: Julie gave the present to Aiden and me.
Example: Julie gave the present to me.

I or me for comparisons

The phrases than I and than me are both grammatically correct. The word than can be used as a conjunction for subjects or as a preposition for objects.

Example: Cynthia is faster than I.
Example: Cynthia is faster than I am.

In the above examples, the word than is being used as a conjunction, so the use of the subject-form I is acceptable. Note that the sentence Cynthia is faster than I omits the implied word am.

Example: Cynthia is faster than me.

In the above example, Cynthia is the subject of the sentence and me is the object of the sentence.

Who or whom

The word who is used in a sentence’s subject. The word whom is used in a sentence’s object. If you are unsure if you should use who or whom, try rephrasing the sentence so the subject and object of the sentence are easier to identify.

Example: Who caught the ball?
Example: Julie caught the ball.

In the above example, Julie is the subject of the sentence, so the word who should be used.

Example: To whom did you send the email?
Example: You sent the email to Alex.

In the above example, Alex is the indirect object of the sentence, so the word whom should be used.

Example: Whom did I help?
Example: I helped Nathan.

In the above example, Nathan is the direct object of the sentence, so the word whom should be used.

In informal speech and writing, the word who is more frequently used than whom, even as a sentence’s object. However, in academic and formal writing, use who for subjects and whom for objects.

Verbs

What are Verbs?

Verbs are words that refer to actions or states of being. The three verb categories are action verbs, linking verbs, and helping verbs. Verbs are modified by tense—past, present, and future—and have singular and plural forms.

Action verbs

Action verbs convey an action that a noun is taking.

Example: Ron throws the ball.

In the above example, Ron is the noun and throws is the verb.

Here are some additional examples of action verbs:

Example: Julie will watch the movie.
Example: Hans and Sammy played in a band.
Example: I ran to third base and then stole home plate.

Linking verbs

Linking verbs convey a state of being.

Example: Jason is tall.

In the above example, Jason is the noun and is is the verb. Jason is not engaging in an action in the sentence—he is not throwing, or jumping, or running. The verb is conveys his state of being tall. As a linking verb, is connects the noun Jason to the adjective tall.

Here are some additional examples of linking verbs:

Example: You are very smart.
Example: Jason was short for his age.
Example: He seemed like a nice person.
Example: I became interested in watercolor painting.
Example: Jamie has been a novelist for many years.

Helping verbs

Helping verbs, also known as auxiliary verbs, are words that help other verbs in a sentence.

Example: Nathan is writing an essay.

In the above example, is functions as a helping verb to the action verb writing. Notice that is can also function as a linking verb, as in the sentence Julie is a doctor.

Here are some additional examples of helping verbs:

Example: After all that hard work, I could go for a cup of lemonade.
Example: I must study for my exam.
Example: Julie should clean her room; it’s very messy.
Example: I need to get a haircut.

A sentence can consist of a subject and a helping verb if there is an implied action verb that is being omitted.

Example: I can help with the project.
Example: I can.
Example: I can, since I have enough free time.

Verb tense

Tense refers to the period in time in which verbs occur. The three primary tenses are past tense, present tense, and future tense. Each of these tenses can also be further categorized into simple, continuous, perfect, and perfect continuous aspects.

In English, the continuous aspect is also called progressive or imperfect.

Past tense

Past tense refers to verbs that already occurred. Many—but not all—past tense verbs end in -ed.

Example: I walked to the store last week.
Example: I was sleepy last night.
Example: I needed to get a haircut.

Present tense

Present tense refers to verbs as they occur.

Example: Frodo travels to Mordor.
Example: Frodo is brave.
Example: Frodo must travel to Mordor.

Future tense

Future tense refers to verbs that will occur. Verbs in the future tense generally require the word will to precede them.

Example: King Arthur will return from Avalon.
Example: Sam will be tall when he’s older.
Example: Julie will help plan your wedding.

Continuous aspect

The continuous aspect refers to verbs that occur over a duration of time and may repeat or continue to occur. Verbs in the continuous aspect generally end in -ing and require the past, present, or future form of the verb to be to precede them.

Example: Aiden was playing Pokémon yesterday.
Example: Aiden is playing Pokémon today.
Example: Aiden will be playing Pokémon tomorrow.

Perfect aspect

The usage of perfect in this term comes from its Latin meaning of “completed.” The perfect aspect refers to verbs that occur over a duration of time but have been completed, are completing, or will be completed. Verbs in the perfect aspect generally use their past tense spelling and require the past, present, or future form of the verb has to precede them.

Example: Julie had spoken to the man once before.
Example: Alfonse has trained all his life for this violin concerto.
Example: Starting February, Frankie will have worked at the company for thirty years.

Perfect continuous aspect

The perfect continuous aspect refers to verbs that occur over a duration of time and formerly occurred continuously, currently occur continuously, or will eventually occur continuously. Verbs in the perfect continuous aspect generally end in -ing and require the past, present, or future form of the verb phrase has been to precede them.

Example: Megan had been practicing soccer three times a week until she hurt her ankle.
Example: The oldest pub in town has been operating since the 1600s.
Example: By the time you get into town, I will have been sleeping at the hotel for three hours.

Verb Tense Table
	Past	Present	Future
Simple	Amy spoke to the man.	Amy speaks to the man.	Amy will speak to the man.
Continuous	Amy was speaking to the man.	Amy is speaking to the man.	Amy will be speaking to the man.
Perfect	Amy had spoken to the man.	Amy has spoken to the man.	Amy will have spoken to the man.
Perfect Continuous	Amy had been speaking to the man.	Amy has been speaking to the man.	Amy will have been speaking to the man.

Verb Pluralization

Refer to the Pluralization section for rules on pluralizing verbs.

Adverbs

What is an Adverb?

Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. Adverbs can also modify sentences. Adverbs can often—but not always—be identified by the suffix -ly.

Example: Lily carefully planted the sapling. (adverb modifies verb)

Example: He painted a magnificently colorful landscape. (adverb modifies adjective)

Example: Aiden very quietly pulled a cookie from the cookie jar. (adverb modifies adverb)

Example: The boxer punched fast and hard. (adverbs modify verb)
Example: Fortunately, I found a spare pencil to lend to Julie. (adverb modifies sentence)

Adverbs for comparisons

Adverbs fall under three categories: absolute, comparative, and superlative. Comparative and superlative adverbs are used to make comparisons.

Absolute adverbs

Absolute adverbs are regular adverbs that are not used to make comparisons.

Example: Thomas studied diligently for the test.

Comparative adverbs

Comparative adverbs are adverbs that are used to make comparisons between two or more verbs, adjectives, adverbs, or sentences. The words more or less should precede a comparative adverb.

Example: Thomas studied more diligently for the test than his peers.
Example: Jamie studied less diligently for the test than his peers.

Superlative adverbs

Superlative adverbs are adverbs that are used for comparisons when a verb, adjective, adverb, or sentence has the most extreme quality possible among the things being compared. The words most or least should precede a superlative adverb.

Example: Thomas studied most diligently for the test out of all his peers.
Example: Jamie studied least diligently for the test out of all his peers.

Adverb placement

In many situations, adverb placement does not affect the meaning of a sentence.

Example: I ran quickly.
Example: I quickly ran.

However, there are situations where adverb placement can significantly affect the meaning of a sentence. This is especially true for adverbs that place limits on the words they modify, such as only, solely, or just.

Example: The nanny just fed the toddler.

The above example implies that the nanny recently fed the toddler.

Example: The nanny fed just the toddler.

The above example implies that the toddler was the only person the nanny fed.

Adverbs and linking verbs

As previously discussed, adverbs can modify verbs. Some words, like feel or smell, can function as both action verbs and linking verbs. Because linking verbs like feel or smell connect nouns to adjectives, it can be difficult to tell if an adjective or an adverb should be used in a sentence that contains such verbs.

Bad or badly

Example: The dog smelled bad.

In the above example, smelled is used as a linking verb, connecting the noun dog to the adjective bad. In this example, the dog has a bad odor.

Example: The dog smelled badly.

In the above example, smelled is used as an action verb. The adverb badly modifies the verb smelled. In this example, the dog is bad at smelling.

Example: Despite last week’s bath, the dog quickly smelled bad again.

The above example contains both an adverb (quickly) and an adjective (bad). Notice that quickly modifies the linking verb smelled and bad modifies dog. In this example, the dog had a bad odor that returned soon after taking a bath.

Good or well

The adverb form of the word good is well. Generally, the word good is used as an adjective and the word well is used as an adverb. However, the word well is also used as an adjective when describing health.

Example: Her son was good.

In the above example, the adjective good modifies the noun son.

Example: Her son sings well.

In the above example, the adverb well modifies the verb sings.

Example: After the surgery, her son was well.

In the above example, the adjective well modifies the noun son.

The word good may be used informally as an adverb, but in scholarly or academic writing, good should generally be used as an adjective.

Adjectives

What are Adjectives?

Adjectives describe the qualities or quantities of nouns.

Example: Sally wore the blue dress.
Example: Several piranhas swam in the Amazon River.
Example: The crazy cat lady had fourteen cats.
Example: The quick brown fox jumped over the lazy dog.

In the above examples, the adjectives directly precede the nouns they modify.

Predicate adjectives

A predicate adjective is an adjective that is connected to a noun by a linking verb.

Example: Sally felt sleepy.
Example: The flower is pink.
Example: She seemed happy, but I couldn’t be certain.
Example: The sky looked beautiful at twilight.

Adjectives for comparisons

Adjectives fall under three categories: absolute, comparative, and superlative. Comparative and superlative adjectives are used to make comparisons.

Absolute adjectives

Absolute adjectives are regular adjectives and are used when no comparison is being made.

Example: The hamburger was good.
Example: The sky was blue.
Example: The smart student studied for the test.

Comparative adjectives

Comparative adjectives are used when two or more nouns are being compared. The nouns being compared may be implied.

When an adjective is one or two syllables long, add the suffix -er to make the comparative word form.

Example: Your father was happy to see you, but your mother was even happier.
Example: The fast runner completed a mile in ten minutes.
Example: The faster runner completed a mile in nine minutes.
Example: The muffin was sweet.
Example: The cupcake was sweeter.

When an adjective is one or two syllables long and ends in the letter y, remove the y and add the suffix -ier to make the comparative word form.

Example: The lazy dog went to sleep after his walk.
Example: The lazier dog wouldn’t even stand up.
Example: The syrup was sticky.
Example: The honey was stickier.

When an adjective is three or more syllables long, the word more precedes the adjective.

Example: The courteous passenger didn’t put his legs up on the back of my seat.
Example: The more courteous passenger offered me his window seat.
Example: The flower is beautiful.
Example: You are more beautiful.

Superlative adjectives

Superlative adjectives are used for comparisons when a noun has the most extreme quality possible among the things being compared. The nouns being compared may be implied.

When an adjective is one or two syllables long, add the suffix -est to make the superlative word form.

Example: Your father was happy to see you, and your mother was even happier, but your cat, Mister Fluffers, was the happiest of them all.
Example: The fast runner completed a mile in under ten minutes.
Example: The faster runner completed a mile in under nine minutes.
Example: The fastest runner completed a mile in under four minutes.
Example: The muffin was sweet.
Example: The cupcake was sweeter.
Example: The cotton candy was the sweetest.

When an adjective is one or two syllables long and ends in the letter y, remove the y and add the suffix -iest to make the superlative word form.

Example: The lazy dog went to sleep after his walk.
Example: The lazier dog wouldn’t even stand up.
Example: The laziest dog wasn’t even awake.
Example: The syrup was sticky.
Example: The honey was stickier.
Example: The glue was stickiest.

When an adjective is three or more syllables long, the word most precedes the adjective.

Example: The courteous passenger didn’t put his legs up on the back of my seat.
Example: The more courteous passenger offered me his window seat.
Example: The most courteous passenger offered to carry my bags for me.
Example: The flower was beautiful.
Example: You are more beautiful.
Example: The bowl of mac & cheese is most beautiful.

When making a negative superlative comparison, the word least precedes the adjective regardless of its syllable length.

Example: She wanted the bitter cup of coffee.
Example: She wanted the less bitter cup of coffee.
Example: She wanted the least bitter cup of coffee.
Example: The adventurous child explored the swamp.
Example: The less adventurous child explored the neighborhood.
Example: The least adventurous child explored the fridge.

Some adjectives have unique comparative and superlative word forms.

Example: The first contestant was good.
Example: The second contestant was better.
Example: The third contestant was the best.
Example: The first contestant was bad.
Example: The second contestant was worse.
Example: The third contestant was the worst.

Coordinate adjectives

When multiple adjectives describe the same noun, they may or may not be coordinate adjectives. Coordinate adjectives are two or more adjectives of equal importance that modify the same noun.

When you use coordinate adjectives to modify a noun, the adjectives must be separated by a comma or the word and if they appear next to each other. Coordinate adjectives can be listed in any order.

Example: Cassandra was thoughtful and intelligent.
Example: Cassandra was intelligent and thoughtful.
Example: The hot, humid day seemed to drag on forever.
Example: The humid, hot day seemed to drag on forever.

In the above examples, both pairs of adjectives are coordinate because they modify the same nouns and are of equal importance.

For adjectives that are not coordinate, the adjective that is more innate to the noun should be closest to the noun.

Correct: We helped repair the town’s six brick cottages.
Incorrect: We helped repair the town’s brick six cottages.

In the above example, the construction of the cottages is more innate to the cottages than their number—the cottages are brick cottages before they are six cottages.

Prepositions

What are Prepositions?

Prepositions are words that position sentences in time and space and show relationships between things.

There are many prepositions in the English language. Here is an incomplete list of prepositions:

Before
After
Over
Under
In
Out
On
Off
Until
With
Against
Despite

Prepositions can indicate positions in time.

Example: I watched a movie before I ate dinner.
Example: I got to school at 8:30 a.m.

Prepositions can indicate positions in space.

Example: We drove under the highway overpass.
Example: My brother has been out of the house since morning.

Prepositions can indicate relationships between things.

Example: I wrote off the fancy cardstock as a business expense.
Example: My historian friend could talk endlessly about ancient Rome.

Prepositions can show more than one type of relationship.

Example: The bridge went over the Hillsborough River. (Space)
Example: My presentation went over the ten-minute time limit. (Time)

There are times when a variety of prepositions may be acceptable in a sentence. This is often the case when discussing abstract concepts such as the mind or digital spaces.

Example: You can find out more on our website.
Example: You can find out more at our website.
Example: He thought on the subject heavily.
Example: He thought about the subject heavily.

There are times when different prepositions can significantly change the meaning of a sentence.

Example: The duck came to the animal handler.
Example: The duck came at the animal handler.

In the first example, the duck moved toward the animal handler. In the second example, the duck attacked the animal handler.

Prepositional phrases

A prepositional phrase is a group of words that contains a preposition, the preposition’s object, and any words that modify the object.

Example: Maddy went to school.

In the above example, the prepositional phrase contains the preposition to and the object school.

Example: Maddy went to night school.

In the above example, the prepositional phrase contains the preposition to, the object school, and the adjective night.

Prepositional phrases may function like adjectives, adverbs, or nouns.

Adjectival phrases

A prepositional phrase that modifies a noun or pronoun is known as an adjectival phrase, as it functions like an adjective.

Example: She wanted to attend school in South Korea.

In the above example, the noun school is modified by the prepositional phrase in South Korea.

Example: Though they weren’t related, Julie thought of her as a sister.

In the above example, the pronoun her is modified by the prepositional phrase as a sister.

Adverbial phrases

A prepositional phrase that modifies a verb, adverb, or adjective is known as an adverbial phrase, as it functions like an adverb.

Example: She searched under her desk.

In the above example, the verb searched is modified by the prepositional phrase under her desk.

Example: She arrived just in time.

In the above example, the adverb just is modified by the prepositional phrase in time.

Example: She was sleepy after the lecture.

In the above example, the adjective sleepy is modified by the prepositional phrase after the lecture.

Nominal phrases

A prepositional phrase that functions as a noun is known as a nominal phrase. Nominal phrases are also known as nominals or noun phrases.

Example: After six in the evening is far too late for me to have a cup of coffee.

In the above example, the nominal phrase After six in the evening takes the role of a noun in the sentence.

Conjunctions

What are Conjunctions?

The word conjunction means “joined together.” Conjunctions are words that join parts of sentences together. A conjunction can join words, phrases, or clauses.

The three most common types of conjunctions are coordinating conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions, and correlative conjunctions.

Coordinating conjunctions

The word coordinate means “same rank.” Coordinating conjunctions are used to join together two grammatical units of equal importance. Use coordinating conjunctions to connect two adjectives, adverbs, nouns, phrases, or independent clauses. When connecting two independent clauses with a coordinating conjunction, a comma must be placed before the coordinating conjunction.

Here is a list of coordinating conjunctions. These can be remembered with the acronym FANBOYS.

Connecting words:

Example: Jack was fast but clumsy. (Connecting adjectives)
Example: Billy and Mandy went to school. (Connecting nouns)

Connecting phrases:

Example: We traveled over the hills and under the shadows of mountains. (Connecting adverbial phrases)
Example: Right before sunrise and right after sunset are my favorite times to run. (Connecting nominal phrases)

Connecting clauses:

Example: Julie went to the store, but Jack went to music practice. (Connecting independent clauses)

Subordinating conjunctions

The word subordinate means “lower rank.” Subordinating conjunctions are used to join together clauses when one of the clauses is lower rank than the other. Use subordinating conjunctions to connect a dependent clause to an independent clause.

Here is an incomplete list of subordinating conjunctions:

As
As long as
Although
Because
If
In case
In order
Since
So
Unless
While

An independent clause is a clause that can function as a complete sentence. A dependent clause is a clause that cannot function as a complete sentence. The subordinating conjunction connects these two clauses.

Example: Jamie kept falling asleep during class. (Independent clause)
Example: because he stayed up too late (Dependent clause)
Example: Jamie kept falling asleep during class because he stayed up too late. (Clauses connected by subordinating conjunction)

When the independent clause comes first in a sentence with a subordinating conjunction, a comma is not required to separate the two clauses.

Example: Gandalf gave the Ring to Frodo since he knew he could trust the goodness of hobbits.

When the dependent clause comes first in a sentence with a subordinating conjunction, a comma is required to separate the two clauses.

Example: Since he knew he could trust the goodness of hobbits, Gandalf gave the Ring to Frodo.

Subordinating conjunctions can be a single word, like because, or a group of words, like as long as.

Example: We had spaghetti for dinner because he loved Italian food.
Example: As long as we have Italian food for dinner, he will be happy.

Correlative conjunctions

The word correlative means “related together.” Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunctions that relate information together in a sentence.

Here is an incomplete list of correlative conjunctions:

Either/or
Neither/nor
Not only/but also
Both/and

Order matters for correlative conjunctions. The first item listed in each pair shown above must come first in a sentence.

Example: Julie will take either strawberry or vanilla ice cream.
Example: Neither Julie nor Nathan enjoys banana ice cream.
Example: Batman is not only a genius detective but also a master of martial arts.
Example: Batman is both a genius detective and a master of martial arts.

Articles

What are Articles?

Articles are words that mark a noun as being specific or nonspecific.

There are three articles in the English language:

Use the article the when the noun you are describing is specific.

Example: I went to the biggest mall in the city.

Use the article a when the noun you are describing is nonspecific and begins with a consonant sound.

Example: I watched a movie.
Example: My child wanted a unicorn.

Use the article an when the noun you are describing is nonspecific and begins with a vowel sound.

Example: I opened an umbrella.
Example: I drank an herbal tea to soothe my stomach.

If any words come between the article and noun, use the sound of the word immediately after the article to determine if you should use a or an.

Example: She made a bombastic entrance.
Example: A rapidly approaching elephant crossed the road.
I watched an excellent movie.

Interjections

Interjections are words or expressions that interrupt the normal flow of a sentence. Interjections can also function as complete sentences. Almost any word or expression can be used as an interjection, but some of the most common interjections are words like oops, wow, or oh no.

Here are some examples of ways that interjections are commonly incorporated into writing.

Example: I was watching the baseball game, and wow, what a home run!
Example: Oh no! I forgot to do my math homework.
Example: The singer was only nineteen—wow!—when she won her first Grammy.
Example: The singer was only nineteen (wow!) when she won her first Grammy.
Example: Oops, I did it again!

Interjections are usually informal and should be avoided in academic writing.

Parts of a Sentence

What is a Sentence?

A sentence must contain a subject and a predicate. The subject must contain a noun or nominal word, and the predicate must contain a verb. A sentence can be as simple as a noun and a verb.

Example: Birds fly.

The subject can contain more than a noun, and the predicate can contain more than a verb.

Example: Migratory birds fly to Florida.

In the above example, the subject contains an adjective (migratory) and a noun (birds), and the predicate contains a verb (fly), a preposition (to), and a direct object (Florida).

In this section we will examine the different parts of a sentence including: subject, predicate, object, complement, phrase, and clause.

Subject

What is a Subject?

The subject of a sentence identifies who or what the sentence is about. Nouns, pronouns, gerunds, and phrases can all be subjects. Subjects can be singular or plural. The subject has two forms: the simple subject and the complete subject.

Simple subject

The simple subject refers to the main word or words that the sentence is about.

Example: The biggest tree in the yard is a chrysanthemum tree.

In the above example, the noun tree is the simple subject.

Complete subject

The complete subject refers to the simple subject and any additional words that modify the simple subject.

Example: The biggest tree in the yard is a chrysanthemum tree.

In the above example, the complete subject consists of an article (the), an adjective (biggest), the simple subject (tree), and a prepositional phrase (in the yard).

Noun as subject

A noun is a person, place, thing, or idea.

Example: The brown dog ran to the tree.
Example: Dogs love to eat dog treats.
Example: Dogs and cats are more popular pets than frogs and snails.

Pronoun as subject

A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun.

Example: They went to a movie.
Example: Who is at the door?
Example: Anyone can tell you that two plus two equals four.

Gerund as subject

A gerund is a verbal, a word that has the qualities of both a verb and a noun. Gerunds are recognizable by their -ing suffix.

Example: Running is a great way to keep healthy.
Example: Lying by the shore is my idea of a perfect day.

Phrase as subject

Infinitive phrases, which begin with infinitives like the word to, can be used as subjects for a sentence. Nominal phrases, which function as a noun, can also be used as subjects.

Example: To sing is to communicate your feelings.
Example: After dark is a terrible time to drink a shot of espresso.

Predicate

What is a Predicate?

The predicate of a sentence describes the state or action of the subject. The predicate has two forms: the simple predicate and the complete predicate.

Simple predicate

The simple predicate refers to the verb or verbs of the sentence.

Example: Fish swim.

Multiple verbs can function as the predicate of a sentence.

Example: Flying fish swim and fly.

Linking verbs can function as the predicate of a sentence.

Example: Fish are beautiful.

The predicate can include a verb participle and a form of the verb to be.

Example: Fish are breeding.
Example: Fish have been breeding.

Complete predicate

The complete predicate refers to everything in the sentence that is not part of the subject.

Example: Bruce Wayne is a wealthy playboy.

In the above example, the complete predicate consists of the verb (is), a particle (a), an adjective (wealthy), and a complement (playboy).

Example: By day, Bruce Wayne is a wealthy playboy.
Example: Bruce Wayne is a wealthy playboy by day.

In the above example, the prepositional phrase by day is part of the complete predicate regardless of its position in the sentence. This is because by day modifies playboy, which is part of the predicate.

Object

What is an Object?

An object is a word or group of words in a sentence that receives the action of a verb. Nouns, pronouns, gerunds, and phrases can all be objects. There are two types of objects: direct objects and indirect objects.

Direct object

The direct object is the object that is being acted upon by the verb in a sentence.

Example: I threw the ball.
Example: Apollo Creed punched Rocky.

The direct object does not always need to come after the verb in a sentence. This is often the case when a sentence is written in passive voice.

Example: The ball was thrown by me.
Example: Rocky was punched by Apollo Creed.

An easy way to identify the direct object is to ask a question about who or what received the action of a sentence.

What did I throw? I threw the ball.
Who did Apollo Creed punch? Apollo Creed punched Rocky.

Indirect object

The indirect object is a secondary object that is being acted upon by a verb in a sentence. A sentence must have a direct object in order to have an indirect object.

Example: I gave the apple to Julie.
Example: I gave Julie the apple.

The indirect object does not always need to come after the verb in a sentence. This is often the case when a sentence is written in passive voice.

Example: Julie was given the apple by me.

An easy way to identify the indirect object is to determine the direct object and then ask a question about “to whom” or “to what.”

Example: What did I give? I gave the apple. (Direct object)
Example: To whom did I give the apple? I gave the apple to Julie. (Indirect object)

Complement

What is a Complement?

A complement is a word or group of words that provides additional meaning to a subject or object. Adjectives, nouns, pronouns, gerunds, and phrases can all be complements.

Adjective as complement
- Example: Julie seemed happy.
Noun as complement
- Example: Fernando is a pediatrician.
Pronoun as complement
- Example: The culprit was me.
Gerund as complement
- Example: His passion is painting.
Phrase as complement
- Example: The car’s problem is that the rear driver’s side tire is flat.

Phrase

What is a Phrase?

A phrase is a group of words that provides extra information beyond what a single word can convey in a sentence. Phrases may contain a subject or a predicate or be part of a subject or a predicate. However, a single phrase cannot contain both a subject and a predicate.

There are many categories of phrases. The parts of speech can each have their own type of phrase. Notice how in each example given below, the phrase provides extra information about its part of speech.

Noun phrase: The happy baby giggled.
Pronoun phrase: Who else forgot their math homework?
Verb phrase: She has been dancing.
Adverb phrase: The One Ring was destroyed once and for all.
Adjective phrase: Julie is better than me at chemistry.
Prepositional phrase: The key fell under the table.
Conjunctional phrase: I’ll help cook as soon as I get home.
Interjection phrase: Good grief, I’ll never kick that football.

In the following section, we will examine four types of phrases in detail:

Gerund phrases
Prepositional phrases
Infinitive phrases
Appositive phrases

Gerund phrase

A gerund phrase is a phrase that provides additional information about a gerund. Gerund phrases take the role of a noun in a sentence.

Gerund phrase as subject

Because a gerund can take the role of a noun, a gerund phrase can function as the complete subject of a sentence.

Example: Biking all day long made me hungry.

Gerund phrase in predicate

A gerund phrase may appear in the predicate of a sentence.

Example: I tried biking all day long.

In the above example, the verb of the sentence is the word tried. The gerund phrase biking all day long functions as the direct object of the sentence.

Not gerund phrases: progressive verb phrases and participle phrases

Progressive verbs end in the suffix -ing but do not have noun qualities. The rules of gerund phrases do not apply to progressive verb phrases.
- Example: I was biking all day long.

In the above example, was biking is the past progressive form of the verb to bike. The verb phrase does not have any noun qualities.

Participle phrases are similar to gerund phrases, but they function as adjectives or adverbs, not as nouns. These phrases often require the use of commas.
- Example: Pedaling with all her might, Julie biked thirty miles that day.
- Example: Julie, pedaling with all her might, biked thirty miles that day.

In the above examples, the participle phrase pedaling with all her might acts as an adjective that modifies the noun Julie.

Prepositional phrase

Prepositions are words that indicate position or direction. A prepositional phrase is a phrase that provides extra information about a preposition. A prepositional phrase contains a preposition and the object of the preposition.

Example: The snail crawled onto the leaf.

In the above example, onto is the preposition. Its object is leaf.

Prepositional phrases can function as nouns, complements, adjectives, or adverbs.

Prepositional phrase as noun

A prepositional phrase can fill the role of a noun.

Example: Under the bridge is where we liked to sit after school was over.

In the above example, Under the bridge functions as a noun and is the subject of the sentence.

Prepositional phrase as complement

A prepositional phrase can fill the role of a complement.

Example: Our favorite hangout spot is under the bridge.

In the above example, under the bridge functions as the complement of our favorite hangout spot.

Prepositional phrase as adjective

A prepositional phrase can fill the role of an adjective.

Example: The airplane seat nearest the window is my favorite.

In the above example, nearest the window modifies the noun seat.

Prepositional phrase as adverb

A prepositional phrase can fill the role of an adverb.

Example: The car drove over the bridge.

In the above example, over the bridge modifies the verb drove.

Infinitive phrase

An infinitive phrase is a phrase that uses the basic dictionary form of a verb preceded by the word to.

Example: I want to visit Seoul, South Korea.
Example: They worked to feed and clothe the homeless.

Infinitive phrases can function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.

Infinitive phrase as noun

An infinitive phrase can function as a subject or a direct object in a sentence.

Example: To stroll the beach is my number one goal this weekend.

In the above example, the infinitive phrase To stroll the beach is the subject of the sentence.

Example: I play to win.

In the above example, the infinitive phrase to win is the direct object.

Infinitive phrase as adjective

An infinitive phrase can function as an adjective.

Example: I want someone to love.

In the above example, to love modifies the noun someone.

Infinitive phrase as adverb

An infinitive phrase can function as an adverb.

Example: They work to feed the homeless.

In the above example, to feed the homeless modifies the verb work.

Appositive

The word appose is an old word that means “to place side by side.” An appositive is a noun or phrase that rewords another term in a sentence, providing extra information.

Example: Jamie, a poet, is coming to give a guest lecture tomorrow.
Example: Jamie is coming to give a guest lecture tomorrow.

In the above example, the appositive phrase a poet provides extra information about the noun Jamie. Because the phrase a poet is not crucial to the meaning of the sentence, commas are used to separate it from the rest of the sentence.

Commas, em dashes, and parentheses are all accepted ways to separate an appositive from the rest of its sentence.

Example: Mia often ate sushi, her favorite food, for dinner.
Example: Mia often ate sushi—her favorite food—for dinner.
Example: Mia often ate sushi (her favorite food) for dinner.

When an appositive is crucial to the meaning of a sentence, do not use extra punctuation to separate it from the rest of the sentence. Context often determines whether an appositive is crucial.

Both examples given below can be correct or incorrect depending on context.

Example: Mia and her sister, Lucy, went out for sushi after work.

The above example implies that Mia only has one sister. In this situation, knowing her name is not crucial to the meaning of the sentence. There is only one possible person her sister is referring to.

Example: Mia and her sister Lucy went out for sushi after work.

The above example implies that Mia has more than one sister. In this situation, knowing her name is crucial to the meaning of the sentence, as her sister could refer to multiple people.

Clause

What is a Clause?

A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate.

There are two main types of clauses:

Independent clauses
Dependent clauses

We will also examine two unique categories of dependent clauses:

Subordinate clauses
Relative clauses

Independent clause

An independent clause is a group of words that has a subject and a predicate and can function as a complete sentence.

Example: Fish swim.
Example: Birds fly. Fish swim.

Two independent clauses can be connected by a semicolon.

Example: Birds fly; fish swim.

Two independent clauses can also be connected by a comma and a coordinating conjunction.

Example: Birds fly, and fish swim.
Example: Birds fly, but fish swim.

Three or more independent clauses can be connected by commas. The final item in the list should follow a coordinating conjunction.

Example: Birds fly, fish swim, and snakes slither.

Dependent clause

A dependent clause is a group of words that has a subject and a predicate but cannot function as a complete sentence. To function as a sentence, a dependent clause must be connected to an independent clause that fulfills its verbal relationship. A sentence containing both an independent clause and a dependent clause is known as a complex sentence.

Complex sentence: Nero plays the fiddle while Rome burns.
Independent clause: Nero plays the fiddle
Dependent clause: while Rome burns

In the above example, the dependent clause has a subject (Rome) and a predicate (burns). The words Rome burns can function as a complete sentence. However, while Rome burns cannot function as a complete sentence, because the word while establishes that Rome burns is part of a larger verbal relationship.

Use a comma when placing a dependent clause before an independent clause in a sentence.

Example: While Rome burns, Nero plays the fiddle.

Dependent clauses cannot always be placed before independent clauses in a sentence.

Correct: She is the woman that I love.
Incorrect: That I love, she is the woman.

Subordinate clause

A subordinate clause is a dependent clause that contains a subordinating conjunction, such as the word when.

Complex sentence: I was happy when Jacob came home.
Independent clause: I was happy
Dependent clause: when Jacob came home

There are many subordinating conjunctions. Here are a few:

after
although
even though
if
once
until
when
while

Relative clause

A relative clause is a dependent clause that contains a relative pronoun, such as the word that.

Complex sentence: She was the only astrophysicist that he knew.
Independent clause: She was the only astrophysicist
Dependent clause: that he knew

Here is a list of relative pronouns:

who
whom
whose
that
which

Sentence Variety

Types of Sentences

Sentences are categorized by their grammatical structure. In this section, we will examine the different types of sentence structures.

Listed below are the different types of sentences:

Simple sentences
Compound sentences
Complex sentences
Compound-complex sentences

Simple Sentences

What is a Simple Sentence?

A simple sentence contains a single independent clause. An independent clause is a group of words with a single complete subject and a single complete predicate.

Example: Jason swims.

In the above example, Jason is the subject and swims is the predicate.

A simple sentence can contain a compound subject or compound predicate. A compound subject contains more than one noun as its subject. A compound predicate contains more than one verb as its predicate. These are still considered a single complete subject and a single complete predicate.

Example: Jason and Miranda swim. (Compound subject)
Example: Jason swims and laughs. (Compound predicate)

A simple sentence can also contain any of the parts of speech, such as adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, or interjections.

Example: The young boy can swim. (Adjective)
Example: The young boy can swim quickly. (Adverb)
Example: The young boy can swim quickly across the stream. (Prepositional phrase)
Example: Wow, the young boy can swim quickly across the stream. (Interjection)
Example: Wow, she and the young boy can swim quickly across the stream. (Compound subject)
Example: Wow, she and the young boy can swim quickly across the stream and come back in under three minutes. (Compound predicate)

Even though the above examples seem to grow increasingly complicated, they are all still considered simple sentences. This is because these sentences consist solely of a single independent clause.

Compound Sentences (Coordination)

What is a Compound Sentence?

A compound sentence contains two independent clauses—groups of words that can function as complete sentences. The independent clauses in a compound sentence must be separated by a semicolon or by a comma and a coordinating conjunction.

Semicolon

A semicolon can be used to create a compound sentence. A compound sentence is considered a single sentence. Do not capitalize the word that follows a semicolon unless that word is a proper noun.

Two sentences: Lauren went to the mall. Her brother Jamie stayed home.
Compound sentence: Lauren went to the mall; her brother Jamie stayed home.
Compound sentence: Lauren went to the mall; Jamie, her brother, stayed home.

Semicolons are used when two independent clauses have a close relation to one another. Avoid using semicolons with independent clauses that are long or complicated. Also avoid using multiple semicolons in a single paragraph.

Commas and coordinating conjunctions

A compound sentence can also be created by connecting two independent clauses using a comma and a coordinating conjunction.

Example: I went surfing. My sister went snorkeling.
Example: I went surfing, but my sister went snorkeling.

Coordinating conjunctions

The coordinating conjunctions can be remembered by the acronym FANBOYS:

The coordinating conjunction used in a compound sentence defines the relationship between the two clauses.

Example: I did my best. My teacher gave me a B+.
Example: I did my best, and my teacher gave me a B+.
Example: I did my best, but my teacher gave me a B+.
Example: I did my best, so my teacher gave me a B+.

Notice how in the above examples, the coordinating conjunction changes the meaning of the sentence.

Complex Sentences (Subordination)

What are Complex Sentences?

A complex sentence contains an independent clause and a dependent clause. Independent clauses can function as a complete sentence, while dependent clauses cannot. A dependent clause in a complex sentence must contain a subordinating conjunction. There are two ways to structure a complex sentence: beginning with the independent clause and beginning with the dependent clause.

Beginning a sentence with an independent clause

A complex sentence that begins with its independent clause requires a subordinating conjunction but not a comma.

Complex sentence: Nick watched cartoons after he did his homework.
Independent clause: Nick watched cartoons
Dependent clause: after he did his homework

In the above example, the dependent clause contains the subordinating conjunction after.

Beginning a sentence with a dependent clause

A complex sentence that begins with its dependent clause requires both a subordinating conjunction and a comma. The subordinating conjunction will appear at the beginning of the dependent clause, and the comma will separate the two clauses.

Complex sentence: After he did his homework, Nick watched cartoons.
Dependent clause: After he did his homework
Independent clause: Nick watched cartoons

In the above example, the comma separates the dependent clause After he did his homework from the independent clause Nick watched cartoons.

Subordinating conjunctions

There are many subordinating conjunctions. Here is a list of some common ones:

Although
After
Because
Before
Even though
Even if
In case
Since
Unless
While

The subordinating conjunction determines what the relationship is between the independent clause and the dependent clause.

Example: Nick watched cartoons after he did his homework.
Example: Nick watched cartoons before he did his homework.

Notice how in the examples above, the subordinating conjunction changes the meaning of the sentence.

Compound/Complex Sentences

What are Compound-complex Sentences?

A compound-complex sentence contains two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clause. This sentence type combines the qualities of a compound sentence with the qualities of a complex sentence. The clauses in a compound-complex sentence do not need to appear in a specific order.

Because this sentence type is compound, it requires either a semicolon or a comma with a coordinating conjunction.

Example: Claire loves donuts; because it is her birthday, she ate half a dozen.

Example: Claire loves donuts, and because it is her birthday, she ate half a dozen.

Because this sentence type is complex, it requires a subordinating conjunction and possibly a comma.

Example: Claire loves donuts; she ate half a dozen because it is her birthday.
Example: Claire loves donuts; because it is her birthday, she ate half a dozen.

Problems with Sentences

Solving Grammar Issues

Certain elements of English grammar frequently cause writers difficulty. In this section, we will look at some of these common grammar issues and provide guidelines on how to solve them in your writing.

Fragments

What are Sentence Fragments?

A sentence fragment is a word or group of words that cannot function as a complete sentence. Sentence fragments are common in informal writing and everyday speech. However, academic writing must communicate ideas as professionally as possible. For this reason, it is important to communicate in complete sentences.

As a reminder, a complete sentence requires an independent clause that contains a complete subject and a complete predicate.

Sentence fragments generally occur for the following reasons:

The sentence fragment is missing a complete subject.
The sentence fragment is missing a complete predicate.
The sentence fragment is missing both a complete subject and a complete predicate.
The sentence fragment is a dependent clause.

Sentence fragments without complete subjects

A sentence fragment can occur due to the lack of a complete subject.

Incorrect: I caught a cold right before my honeymoon. Which totally sucked.

In the above example, Which totally sucked is a sentence fragment. It contains a complete predicate (totally sucked) but no subject.

How to correct this type of fragment

Incorporate the fragment into a nearby sentence.

Incorrect: I caught a cold right before my honeymoon. Which totally sucked.
Correct: I caught a cold right before my honeymoon, which totally sucked.

Rephrase the fragment so it has a subject.

Incorrect: I caught a cold right before my honeymoon. Which totally sucked.
Correct: I caught a cold right before my honeymoon. The timing totally sucked.

Sentence fragments without complete predicates

A sentence fragment can occur due to the lack of a complete predicate.

Incorrect: Veronica had a great time at the beach. The big blue open water.

In the above example, The big blue open water is a sentence fragment. This sentence fragment can function as a complete subject, but it lacks a complete predicate.

How to correct this type of fragment

Add a predicate to the fragment.

Incorrect: Veronica had a great time at the beach. The big blue open water.
Correct: Veronica had a great time at the beach. The big blue open water calmed her soul.

Add a subject and predicate to the fragment.

Incorrect: Veronica had a great time at the beach. The big blue open water.
Correct: Veronica had a great time at the beach. She loved the big blue open water.

Incorporate the fragment into a nearby sentence.

Incorrect: Veronica had a great time at the beach. The big blue open water.
Correct: Veronica had a great time at the beach, relishing the big blue open water.

Sentence fragments with neither complete subjects nor complete predicates

A sentence fragment can occur when a group of words functions as neither a complete subject nor a complete predicate.

Incorrect: Jamie’s mother said she would make sure he got into college. No matter the cost.

In the above example, No matter the cost is a sentence fragment. It is neither a complete subject nor a complete predicate.

How to correct this type of fragment

Incorporate the fragment into a nearby sentence.

Incorrect: Jamie’s mother said she would make sure he got into college. No matter the cost.
Correct: Jamie’s mother said she would make sure he got into college, no matter the cost.
Correct: No matter the cost, Jamie’s mother said she would make sure he got into college.

Sentence fragments that are dependent clauses

A sentence fragment can occur when a dependent clause is treated as if it were a complete sentence.

Incorrect: Helga tended the sheep. While Gretchen milked the cows.

In the above example, While Gretchen milked the cows is a sentence fragment. It contains both a complete subject (Gretchen) and a complete predicate (milked the cows). However, the presence of the word while, a subordinating conjunction, turns the group of words into a dependent clause, so it cannot function as a complete sentence.

How to correct this type of fragment

Remove the subordinating conjunction.

Incorrect: Helga tended the sheep. While Gretchen milked the cows.
Correct: Helga tended the sheep. Gretchen milked the cows.

Incorporate the fragment into a nearby sentence.

Incorrect: Helga tended the sheep. While Gretchen milked the cows.
Correct: Helga tended the sheep while Gretchen milked the cows.
Correct: While Gretchen milked the cows, Helga tended the sheep.

Coordinating Conjunction Fragments

are word groups that have a subject and a verb and begin with a coordinating conjunction: for,and, nor, but, or, yet, or so (FANBOYS).

So I had to pack the night before.
And many people believe that aliens have visited earth.
But they had some good results.

These word groups are not sentences. Although they have a subject and a predicate, they do not complete a thought. If the conjunction is not connecting something, the thought is not complete.

These can be fixed by either removing the conjunction or adding more information. Remember, if you join two complete sentences with a coordinating conjunction, a comma is needed to separate the two.

My plane left at 5:00 in the morning, so I had to pack the night before.
However, if there is only one subject or predicate, no comma is used.
Many people believe in ghosts and that aliens have visited Earth.

Relative Clause Fragments

Relative clauses are word groups that have a subject and a verb and begin with a relative pronoun:

whose that which whichever
who whoever
whom whomever
what whatever

Learning the abbreviation WTWW, WW, WW, WW will help to remember these. These are dependant clauses since they depend upon an independent clause to complete a thought and, therefore, a sentence. Relative pronouns are also conjunctions since they join parts of a sentence.

That I have always wanted to visit.
Which are green.
Wherever I play every day.

They can also be fixed by adding more information. Remember, when you use the word that, you never use a comma.

New York is a city that I have always wanted to visit.

However, you may or may not need a comma with who or which. If you need the information to understand the meaning of the sentence, you do not need a comma. If the information is just added in as extra information, you need to indicate this with commas.

Oranges which are green should not be eaten.
My guitar, which I play every day, was a gift from my father.

See Commas for more information on necessary (restrictive) and (nonrestrictive) clauses with who, which, and that.

Subordinate Conjunction Fragments

Subordinate clauses are word groups that have a subject and a verb and begin with a subordinating conjunction such as although, because, if, since, when, where, and while. A subordinate clause fragment, also called subordinating conjunction fragment, leaves the reader wondering what comes next.

Because it was raining
When I’m feeling angry
If I’m feeling blue

These word groups are not sentences. Although they have a subject and a predicate, they do not complete a thought. For this reason, they are called dependent or subordinate clauses.

They can be fixed by adding more information. Remember, if you begin a sentence with a subordinating conjunction, it is considered introductory words and a comma is needed to separate the subordinate clause from the rest of the sentence.

When I’m angry, I like to listen to music.

If the subordinating conjunction is in the middle, no comma is used since the words are no longer introducing the main clause.

I call my best friend if I’m feeling blue.

Run-On Sentences

What is a run-on?

Run-on sentences

A run-on sentence is a grammatical error that occurs when punctuation is missing at the end of a sentence, causing it to fuse with the sentence that comes after it.

Example of a run-on sentence:

Incorrect: I climbed up the mountain the view at the top was breathtaking.

A run-on sentence can be fixed by separating the two independent clauses with a semicolon.

Correct: I climbed up the mountain; the view at the top was breathtaking.
Note: This is appropriate use of a semicolon because the two sentences are closely related.

A run-on sentence can be fixed by separating the two independent clauses into two sentences.

Correct: I climbed up the mountain. The view at the top was breathtaking.
Note: While this is grammatically correct, a semicolon would be more appropriate because the two sentences are closely related.

A run-on sentence can be fixed by separating the two independent clauses with a comma and a coordinating conjunction.

Correct: I climbed up the mountain, and the view at the top was breathtaking.

Comma splices

A comma splice is a grammatical error that occurs when a comma is used to incorrectly combine two independent clauses into a single sentence.

Example of a comma splice:

Incorrect: I climbed up the mountain, the view at the top was breathtaking.

Three options for correcting a comma splice:

A comma splice can be fixed by separating the two independent clauses into two sentences.

Correct: I climbed up the mountain. The view at the top was breathtaking.

A comma splice can be fixed by separating the two independent clauses with a semicolon.

Correct: I climbed up the mountain; the view at the top was breathtaking.

A comma splice can be fixed by separating the two independent clauses with a comma and a coordinating conjunction.

Correct: I climbed up the mountain, and the view at the top was breathtaking.

Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers

Modifiers

A modifier changes the meaning of another word or word group in a sentence.

Example: The dog slept.
Example: The brown dog slept peacefully.

In the above example, the adjective brown modifies the noun dog, and the adverb peacefully modifies the verb slept.

Misplaced Modifiers

When a modifier is placed incorrectly or awkwardly in a sentence, it may cause the sentence to have an unclear meaning. This sort of error is called a misplaced modifier.

Incorrect: Jen saw a police officer on her way to work.

In the above example, it is unclear if Jen was on her way to work or if the police officer was on her way to work. From a grammatical standpoint, the sentence could have either meaning.

Correct: On her way to work, Jen saw a police officer.
Correct: Jen saw a police officer who was on her way to work.

Adverb placement

In many situations, adverb placement does not affect the meaning of a sentence.

Example: I ran quickly.
Example: I quickly ran.

Example: The nanny just fed the toddler.

The above example implies that the nanny recently fed the toddler.

Example: The nanny fed just the toddler.

The above example implies that the toddler was the only person the nanny fed.

Squinting modifiers

A squinting modifier could possibly be modifying the words on either side of it. This causes the sentence to be awkward and have an unclear meaning.

Incorrect: Driving slowly makes me tired.

In the above example, the word slowly could modify either driving or makes. Rephrase the sentence to provide clarity.

Example: Slowly driving makes me tired.
Example: Driving makes me slowly become tired.

Dangling Modifiers

A dangling modifier modifies a word or phrase that does not actually appear in the sentence.

Incorrect: After a dip in the ocean, the burgers and watermelon tasted delicious.

In the above example, the prepositional phrase After a dip in the ocean does not clearly have anything it is modifying. Because of this, the sentence seems to take on a bizarre meaning: the burgers and watermelon tasted delicious after they were dipped in the ocean.

Correct: After James took a dip in the ocean, the burgers and watermelon tasted delicious.

In the above example, James is clearly the one who took a dip in the ocean.

Parallelism

Parallel Structure in Sentences

Parallelism is the idea that parts of a sentence such as items in a series should be phrased in the same grammatical way. The famous quote of Julius Caesar is a good example of why parallelism is so powerful.

Parallel Elements could be independent clauses

Parallel: I came; I saw; I conquered.

Here we have three independent clauses (word groups that can stand alone as sentences) in a row with each of them in the simple past tense using the same pronoun. It would be a very different quote if parallelism were not present.

Not Parallel: I came; I saw; they were conquered.

The introduction of the new pronoun, they, is jarring and disrupts the flow of ideas.

Smaller parts of sentences should also be parallel

Not Parallel: I like going to the beach, to go out to eat, and going to the movies.

Clearly, the phrase to go out to eat is not phrased in the same way as the other two. Such inconsistencies jar a reader to questioning the credibility or authority of a writer. Good writing requires an even flow.

Parallel: I like going to the beach, going to restaurants, and going to the movies.

Identifying the elements in a series

Sometimes, it is difficult to see the parts of a sentence that should be parallel. Can you see the nonparallel part of the next sentence?

Not Parallel:

The economic problems were caused by lenders who gave mortgages to people who really could not afford them, by credit card companies who approved too much easy credit, and by people borrowing more than they could repay.

The last clause uses an -ing word (borrowing) instead of a subject - verb (who + verb) combination.

Parallel:

See how each of the elements in the list now includes a clause that begins with the word who.

The economic problems were caused

by lenders who gave mortgages to people who really could not afford them
by credit card companies who approved too much each credit, and
by people who borrowed more than they could repay.

Not Parallel:

John played soccer, but tennis was played by Sonja.

Parallel:

John played soccer, but Sonja played tennis.

Not Parallel:

I like ice cream with chocolate syrup and cake which has buttercream icing on it.

Parallel:

I like ice cream with chocolate syrup and cake with buttercream icing.

Subject-Verb Agreement

In the English language, subject-verb agreement is the grammatical rule that the verb/verbs in a sentence must match the number and the person/point-of-view of the subject.

Number

Singular and plural verb forms

When the noun in a subject is singular, the verb in the predicate should be singular. When the noun in a subject is plural, the verb in the predicate should be plural.

If you are unsure about the correct form of a verb, it is best to consult a dictionary.

The most common way to make a verb singular is by adding -s to the end.

Example: The child runs.
Example: The knight seizes the castle.

When a verb ends in -ss, -x, -ch, -sh, -o, or -z, make it singular by adding -es to the end.

Example: Annie goes to the bank.
Example: The professor teaches.
Example: The evil witch hexes the prince.
Example: The security officer buzzes me in.

When a verb ends in a vowel and -y, make it singular by adding -s to the end.

Example: The child plays with a doll.
Example: The loud truck annoys me.

When a verb ends in a consonant and -y, make it singular by removing the -y and adding -ies to the end.

Example: The pilot flies around the world.
Example: The mother worries about her child.

The most common way to make a verb plural is by leaving it unchanged from its base form.

Example: The children run.
Example: The professors teach.

Some verbs have irregular singular and plural forms. Memorize such words or refer to a dictionary for assistance.

Example: To be a college student is a wonderful opportunity.
Example: Aiden is a college student.
Example: Pam, Aiden, and Lex are college students.

Collective nouns

Collective nouns are nouns that refer to groups of people, places, things, or ideas.

Example: team, band, family, jury
Example: Americans, The Beatles, Metallica

Example: My favorite band is The Beatles.
Example: The Beatles are talented and creative musicians.

Indefinite pronouns

An indefinite pronoun is used to talk about something that is not clearly defined. Some indefinite pronouns are singular and some are plural. There are also indefinite pronouns that may be singular or plural depending on context.

There are too many indefinite pronouns to list in this guide. Here are some common ones:

One
All
None
Some
Every
Few
Several
Many
More
Most
Nothing
Nowhere
Everywhere
Either
Neither

Some indefinite pronouns are singular:

Example: One can never be too careful these days.
Example: Nothing is set in stone.

Some indefinite pronouns are plural:

Example: Few are more dedicated than Jamie.
Example: Several attend the festival each year.

Some indefinite pronouns may be used in either singular or plural form, depending on context:

Example: All are accounted for.
Example: All is well.

Point of view

Point of view refers to whether a personal pronoun is in first person, second person, or third person perspective. Each point of view has its own singular and plural personal pronouns. Likewise, each point of view has its own rules for subject-verb agreement.

Point of view table

	Singular	Plural
First person	I	we
Second person	you	you
Third person	he, she, they, it	they

Singular personal pronouns

Even though I is a singular pronoun, it should be treated as plural for the purpose of verb forms.

Example: Charlotte travels to New York often.
Example: I travel to New York often.

You

You can be used as either a singular or plural pronoun. The singular you should be treated as plural for the purpose of verb forms.

Example: James travels to New York often.
Example: You travel to New York often.

She and He

She and he are always singular pronouns. She and he use singular verb forms.

Example: Charlotte travels to New York often.
Example: She travels to New York often.

Example: James travels to New York often.
Example: He travels to New York often.

They

They can be used as either a singular or plural pronoun. The singular they should be treated as plural for the purpose of verb forms.

Example: Sam travels to New York often.

Example: They travel to New York often.

It is always singular. It uses singular verb forms.

Example: The circus travels to New York often.
Example: It travels to New York often.

Plural personal pronouns

Plural personal pronouns (such as we, the plural you, and the plural they) always use plural verb forms.

Example: James and Charlotte travel to New York often.
Example: We travel to New York often.

Example: James and Charlotte travel to New York often.
Example: You travel to New York often.

Example: James and Charlotte travel to New York often.
Example: They travel to New York often.

Spelling

Spelling and word choice can be difficult for writers of all skill levels. In this section, we will discuss common problems such as the use of apostrophes and capitalization. We will also examine homonyms—words that have the same pronunciation but are spelled differently—as well as commonly confused words such as affect and effect.

We will also cover pluralization, abbreviation, and when to spell numbers as words instead of using their numeral form (one versus 1).

Plurals

Pluralizing Nouns and Verbs

Pluralizing Nouns

The plural form of a noun is the form a noun takes when it refers to more than one item—for example, apple is singular while apples is plural. In the English language, there are many rules and exceptions for pluralizing nouns.

If you are unsure about the correct plural form of a noun, it is best to consult a dictionary. We will address some of the most common pluralization rules below.

The most common way to pluralize a noun is to add -s to the end.

girl – girls
tree – trees
the Walker family – the Walkers

When a noun ends in -ss, -x, -ch, -sh, or -z, pluralize it by adding -es to the end.

box – boxes
ditch – ditches
business – businesses
the Jones family – the Joneses
the Pérez family – the Pérezes

The most common way to pluralize a noun ending in -o is by adding -es to the end.

tomato – tomatoes
hero – heroes
echo – echoes

Some nouns ending in -o are pluralized by adding -s to the end.

video – videos
piano – pianos
soprano – sopranos

When a noun ends in a vowel and -y, pluralize it by adding -s to the end.

toy – toys
day – days
monkey – monkeys

When a noun ends in a consonant and -y, pluralize it by removing the -y and adding -ies to the end.

city – cities
body – bodies
family – families

The most common way to pluralize a noun ending in -f or -fe is by removing the -f or -fe and adding -ves to the end.

knife – knives
roof – rooves
wolf – wolves

Some nouns ending in -f or -fe are pluralized by adding -s to the end.

serif – serifs
gaffe – gaffes

Some nouns have irregular plural forms. Memorize such words or refer to a dictionary for assistance.

child – children
man – men
woman – women
mouse – mice
crisis – crises
syllabus – syllabi

Some nouns do not change spelling when pluralized.

deer – deer
moose – moose

Some nouns may be pluralized in different ways depending on the intended meaning.

person – people (referring to more than one person)
person – persons (referring to distinct individuals who should not be grouped together)
people – peoples (referring to distinct groups of people)
fish – fish (referring to more than one fish)
fish – fishes (referring to distinct groups of fish)
mouse – mice (referring to more than one rodent)
mouse – mouses (referring to more than one computer mouse)

Some nouns may be pluralized in different ways if they are loan words from another language. In such cases, all are considered valid.

persona – personas or personae
cactus – cactuses or cacti
stadium – stadiums or stadia
octopus – octopuses, octopi, or octopodes
mosquito – mosquitos or mosquitoes

When pluralizing a compound noun, pluralize the main noun, which is not always the first or last word in the word group. Refer to a dictionary for assistance when needed.

secretary of state – secretaries of state
father-in-law – fathers-in-law
surgeon general – surgeons general
nurse practitioner – nurse practitioners

When using a foreign compound noun or phrase from another language, pluralize the noun or phrase by adding -s to the end.

mise en place – mise en places
ne plus ultra – ne plus ultras

Pluralizing Verbs

Verbs can also be pluralized. The verb in a predicate must match forms with the noun in a subject. this is known as subject-verb agreement. When the noun in a subject is singular, the verb in the predicate should be singular. When the noun in a subject is plural, the verb in the predicate should be plural.

If you are unsure about the correct form of a verb, it is best to consult a dictionary.

The most common way to make a verb singular is by adding -s to the end.

The child runs.
The knight seizes the castle.

When a verb ends in -ss, -x, -ch, -sh, -o, or -z, make it singular by adding -es to the end.

Annie goes to the bank.
The professor teaches.
The evil witch hexes the prince.
The security officer buzzes me in.

When a verb ends in a vowel and -y, make it singular by adding -s to the end.

The child plays with a doll.
The loud truck annoys me.

When a verb ends in a consonant and -y, make it singular by removing the -y and adding -ies to the end.

The pilot flies around the world.
The mother worries about her child.

The most common way to make a verb plural is by leaving it unchanged from its base form.

The children run.
The professors teach.

Some verbs have irregular singular and plural forms. Memorize such words or refer to a dictionary for assistance.

To be a college student is a wonderful opportunity.
Aiden is a college student.
Pam, Aiden, and Lex are college students.

Capitalization

Rules on Capitalization

Below are examples of when to use capitalization in specific scenarios.

Complete sentences

Capitalize the first word of a sentence.

Example: The students did well on their assignments.

Quotes

If a quote can function as a complete sentence, capitalize the first word of the quote.

Example: Professor Duncan said, "Reading literature is a great way to learn about other people and cultures."

If quoted material is not a complete sentence, do not capitalize the first word.

Example: Professor Duncan said that students can “learn about other people and cultures” by reading literature.

A sentence with a mixed quotation incorporates the grammar of the quote into the rest of the sentence. This commonly occurs with the phrase said that. Do not capitalize the first word of a mixed quotation.

Example: Professor Duncan said that “reading literature is a great way to learn about other people and cultures.”

Proper nouns

Names: Jane Doe, Ludwig van Beethoven
Organizations: United Way, People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, Pasco-Hernando State College, Plant High School
Countries: United States
Cities and States: St. Louis, Missouri
Geographic locations: the West, the East, Global North, Global South
Geographic regions: Sun Belt, Rust Belt, the Great Plains
Family relation used as part of name: Uncle Fred, Granny Sara, Tito Jorge
Family relation used instead of name: Mother, Father, Uncle, Auntie, Grandpa
Title used instead of name: Captain, Senator, Cardinal, Coach, Sensei
Title used as part of name: Mother Theresa, Senator Smith, Captain Kirk, Coach John
Honorifics used as part of name: Mister Jones, Miss Lisa, Lord Tennyson
Names of pets: Fido

Days of the week and months of the year

Days: Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday
Months: January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November, December

Terms related to nationality, ethnicity, cultural heritage, language, and religion

Nationalities: American
Cultures: Hispanic, Latino, Cajun
Languages: French, Cantonese
Religions: Christianity, Buddhism, Judaism, Islam
Religious affiliations: Christian, Jewish, Muslim
Religious texts: Torah, Bible, Quran, Diamond Sutra, New Testament
Cultural terms as adjectives: Chinese food, French wine

The names of vessels

USS Enterprise

Cutty Sark

Challenger

Abbreviations

Organizations: FBI, NATO
Countries: USA, UK, UAE, ROK
Eras: BC, AD, BCE, CE
Time zones: 8:30 EST (Eastern Standard Time)

In MLA format, do not capitalize a.m. or p.m.

Salutations and closing remarks in correspondence

Dear Mr. Jones,
Dear Sir or Madam,
To Whom It May Concern,
Dear Hiring Committee:
Sincerely,
Yours truly,
With love,

Academic or business titles

Introduction to Adolescent Psychology
Painting 101
Department of English
Senior Assistant Technician

Titles of art and media

MLA format uses title-style capitalization, where only certain words in a title are capitalized. When following title-style capitalization, capitalize the first word, the last word, and all primary words in a title, including words that come after hyphens in compound words.

Examples of the parts of speech that should be capitalized in title-style capitalization:

Nouns: The Flower of Evil
Pronouns: His and Her Circumstances
Verbs: To Kill a Mockingbird
Adjectives: The Good Place
Adverbs: To Boldly Go
Subordinating conjunctions: After, Although, As, As If, As Soon As, Because, Before, If, That, Unless, Until, When, Where, While

Do not capitalize the following elements of a title when following title-style capitalization unless the element is the first word of the title:

Prepositions: against, as, between, in, of, to, according to
Coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS): for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
The word to in infinitives: How to Train Your Dragon
Articles: a, an, the

Example: Against All Odds
Example: A First Memory
Example: The Best Ways to Travel

Examples of different types of media that follow the rules for title-style capitalization:

Books: Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets
Short stories: “The Masque of the Red Death”
Publications: The Atlantic
Short published works: “How to Want Less”
Websites: Neopets, YouTube
Songs: “You’ve Got a Friend in Me”
Albums: Abbey Road
Television shows: Adventure Time
Radio shows and podcasts: Welcome to Night Vale
Apps: iMovie, Uber Eats
Video games: The Last of Us
Visual art: Lady with an Ermine
Productions: Hamilton

Homonyms and Other Commonly Confused Words

Homonyms and Commonly-confused Words

There are some homonyms which are commonly confused. There are other words which are not really homonyms because they are not pronounced the same but are pronounced in a similar way. Listed below are some words whose meanings are commonly confused.

Accept and Except

The word accept means to receive or agree with something presented to you.

Example: I accepted her apology.
Example: I found the cost of rent unacceptable.

The word except means to exclude something.

Example: I like all vegetables except for broccoli.

Affect and Effect

The word affect has multiple usages. As a verb, affect means to influence something or to intentionally change one’s mannerisms. As a noun, affect refers to one’s emotional state.

Example: Spilling salt all over the chemistry experiment certainly affected the outcome.
Example: I affected a polite smile even though I was secretly upset.
Example: The doctor noted the patient’s flat affect during the examination.

The word effect also has multiple usages. Most commonly used as a noun, effect means the result of something. Less commonly used as a verb, effect means to bring something into existence.

Example: The nation was still feeling the effects of a decade-old economic policy.
Example: The activist group effected change in their community.

Cite, Site, and Sight

The word cite means to refer to or give credit to something.

Example: My mother would always cite the wisdom of the Greek philosophers.
Example: My assignment required me to cite five different sources.
Example: The last page of my research paper is the Works Cited page.

The word site means a place or location.

Example: We are supposed to get a new shopping mall, but right now it’s just a construction site.
Example: You will find medical advice on the WebMD website.

The word sight means a thing that is seen.

Example: Her smiling face was a sight for sore eyes.

Everyday and Every Day

The word everyday is an adjective that describes something that is routine and regular.

Example: I wore my everyday work clothes to the party.

The words every day are a combination of an adjective and a noun and refer to the specific recurrence of something on a daily basis.

Example: I brush my teeth every day.
Example: Every day, I try to remember to stretch.

Its and It’s

The word its is a possessive pronoun that is used to show when something belongs to an it.

Example: The old battery lost its ability to hold a charge.

The word it’s is a contraction of the words it is.

Example: It’s a good day to go for a stroll.

Lose and Loose

The word lose means to fail or to have something leave your possession.

Example: I would hate to see my team lose the baseball game.
Example: I didn’t mean to lose my math homework; I promise.

The word loose has multiple usages. As an adjective, it describes something which is not snug or tight. As a verb, it means to release something that was being held in place.

Example: My older brother’s hand-me-down t-shirts were always really loose on me.
Example: The archer loosed an arrow from his bow.

Principle and Principal

The word principle refers to a fundamental rule or guideline.

Example: I try to live by the principles of stoic philosophy.
Example: The physics professor gave a lecture on the principles of relativity.

The word principal has multiple usages. As an adjective, it describes the primary part of something. As a noun, it can refer to a high-ranking administrator or to the initial sum of money in a loan.

Example: Although the driver was charged with a crime, the principal offender was the person who broke into the building.
Example: The student had to visit the principal’s office after getting in trouble.
Example: Along with the $10,000 principal, I also had to pay 2% interest on my car loan.

Soul and Sole

The word soul refers to a spirit.

Example: The old piano instructor down the street has a kind soul.

The word sole describes when something is alone. It also refers to a type of fish.

Example: He was the sole third grader who dared stand up to the bully.
Example: I ordered the baked sole with a side of greens.

Stationary and Stationery

The word stationary describes something that is not supposed to move.

Example: The traffic director advised our car to remain stationary.

The word stationery refers to paper office supplies.

She loved to import fancy stationery from Holland and Japan.

Then and Than

The word then is used to mark something in time.

Example: The role of women in society was much more limited back then.
Example: To get to the donut shop, first walk down the street, then turn left.

The word than is used to make comparisons.

Example: I would rather eat my hat than go skydiving.
Example: My love of fried chicken is greater than my fear of indigestion.

They’re, There and Their

The word then is used to mark something in time.

Example: The role of women in society was much more limited back then.
Example: To get to the donut shop, first walk down the street, then turn left.

The word than is used to make comparisons.

Example: I would rather eat my hat than go skydiving.
Example: My love of fried chicken is greater than my fear of indigestion.

To, Two, and Too

The word to is most commonly used as a preposition to mark the direction something takes. It can also be used with infinitives in phrases like how to.

Example: They went to the movies.
Example: They showed me how to install a spare tire.

The word two is the word form of the number 2.

Example: I ordered two milkshakes for Sam and Pam.

The word too has multiple usages. It is used as an adverb to describe something that is taken to an extraneous degree. It is also used as a synonym of the word also.

Example: It was too hot outside, so I stayed indoors.
Example: We stayed indoors all summer too.
Example: I, too, believe in liberty and justice for all.

Until and Till

The word until is used to mark the duration of something.

Example: I will love you until the stars fall from the sky.
Example: Head north until you reach the gas station.

The word till has multiple usages. As a verb, it means to plow soil. It is also an informal abbreviation of the word until. As an abbreviation, till should be avoided in academic writing.

Example: The farmer tilled the land.

Example: I will love you till the stars fall from the sky.

Weather and Whether

The word weather refers to climate.

Example: Stormy weather is approaching.

The word whether is used to show that something is conditional or being determined.

Example: I waited to hear whether I won the poetry contest.
Example: Whether you move to Tokyo or Ontario is up to you.

Where and Were

The word where is used to mark the location of something.

Example: Where can I find the best Cuban sandwich in town?
Example: I was not sure where to go.

The word were has multiple usages as a verb. It can also be used as a prefix to refer to a supernatural monster that is half-human and half-beast.

Example: They were first in line.
Example: Bob and Joe were swimming last night when they heard thunder overhead.
Example: If I were a rich man, I wouldn’t have to work hard.
Example: The movie was about a love triangle between a girl, a werewolf, and a vampire.

Whose and Who’s

The word whose is used to mark possession.

Example: Whose pencil is this?
Example: I only want to vote for a mayor whose policies serve the greater good.

The word who’s is a contraction of the words who is.

Example: Who’s going to clean the dishes?

Alright and All Right

The word alright is an adjective that informally describes something that is of average, acceptable quality.

Example: I was feeling alright after I recovered from my cold.

It is best to avoid the use of alright in academic writing.

Words with More than One Spelling

Some words have multiple accepted spellings. Maintain a consistent usage of one spelling throughout your work.

Gray and grey
Judgment and judgement
Color and colour
Aluminum and aluminium
Travelled and traveled

Numbers and Abbreviations

Numbers

Context plays a role in whether you should use numerals (1, 2, 3) or word forms (one, two, three) in your work.

For works in which numbers are infrequent, use the word form of numbers that are only one or two words long. Use numerals when more than two words would be required:

Example: Thirteen
Example: Two thousand
Example: Sixty-seven
Example: 6½ (not six and a half)
Example: 107 (not one hundred and seven)
Example: 10,256 (not ten thousand, two hundred fifty-six)

For works in which numbers are frequent, such as works involving data reports, use numerals for numbers expressed in ratios or units of measurement.

Example: 12 feet
Example: 35 kilograms
Example: a 5:3 ratio

When a number must be expressed as a numeral, any numbers that appear next to them should also be numerals.

Example: Only 5 of the 8-ounce cans were cold.
Example: She ordered 1 coloring book and 153 crayons.

Street addresses

Use numerals for numbers that appear in a street address. For suffixes like first, second, third, or fourth, do not format the text in a superscript font.

Example: 2727 Mansfield Blvd.
Example: 2003 1st Street

Decimals

Use numerals for numbers that are expressed as decimals.

Example: 10.3

Money and percentages

For works in which numbers are infrequent, use the word form of percentages or amounts of money if you can do so in three words or less.

Example: Five percent
Example: Thirty-three percent
Example: Ten million dollars
Example: $5.35 (not five dollars and thirty-five cents)
Example: $110 (not one hundred and ten dollars)
Example: 502% (not five hundred and two percent)
Example: 2.33% (not two point thirty-three percent)

For works in which numbers are frequent, use numerals with any appropriate percentage or money symbols. Do not use symbols like $ or % with the word forms of numbers.

Numbered series

Numerals should be used for items in a series.

Chapter 2
Page 47
Phase 1

Large numbers

For large numbers, a combination of numerals and words is accepted.

Example: There were approximately 5.5 million Americans affected by the bill.

Pluralizing numbers

For the word form of numbers, pluralize using the standard rules for noun pluralization.

Example: Five – Fives
Example: Sixty – Sixties
Example: Zero – Zeroes

For the numeral form of numbers, pluralize by adding an s to the end of the number.

Example: 88s
Example: 1950s

Beginning sentences with numbers

Do not begin a sentence with a numeral, even if it appears next to a number that must be expressed as a numeral. Either begin the sentence with the word form of a number or rephrase the sentence so the numeral appears later in the sentence.

Correct: Five hundred fifty-four out of 555 dentists recommend the product.
Correct: The product is recommended by 554 out of 555 dentists.
Incorrect: 554 out of 555 dentists recommend the product.

Dates

Do not abbreviate dates. Use numerals for the numbers in dates. For the body of your work, choose either day-month-year or month-day-year format and use your chosen format consistently. When using month-day-year style, place a comma after the year unless there is another punctuation mark that follows it. For the works-cited page, day-month-year format must be used.

Example: I will turn twenty-three years old on 1 January 2023.
Example: I will turn twenty-three years old on January 1, 2023.
Example: I was born on January 1, 2000, and will turn twenty-three on January 1, 2023.

When referring to a month and a year or a season and a year, do not use commas to separate the two elements.

Example: I was born in January 2000 in Ocala, Florida.
Example: I’m really excited for summer 2023.

When referring to a decade, choose either to use numerals or word forms, and use your chosen format consistently.

Example: The nineties
Example: The 90s

Do not capitalize centuries.

Example: Shakespeare was born in the sixteenth century.

Use numerals when referring to years in an era. The era abbreviations AD and AH are placed before the year, while the era abbreviations BC, BCE, and CE are placed after the year.

Example: AD 2015
Example: AH 1010
Example: 400 BC
Example: 400 BCE
Example: 2015 CE

Times

When referring to times of the day, generally use numerals and the twelve-hour-clock format.

Example: 2:15 p.m.

Time zones may either be abbreviated or spelled out.

Example: 12:00 EST
Example: 12:00 Eastern Standard Time

Use word forms to express time-related phrases.

Example: Five o’clock
Example: Half past five
Example: A quarter to five

Abbreviations

When composing a research paper in MLA format, abbreviations are common on the Works Cited page. In the body of a written work, avoid using abbreviations whenever possible, with the exception of in-text citations in research papers. If you do use an abbreviation in the body of your work, always use a standard, accepted form that can be found in a reference work like a dictionary.

For more information, refer to the ninth edition of the MLA Handbook, which lists many standard academic abbreviations.

Capitalized abbreviations

Do not use periods or spaces between letters in abbreviations that are primarily capital letters.

Example: AD, AH, CE, BCE, BC
Example: PhD, MD
Example: FL, US

Name abbreviations

Use periods and spaces between each abbreviated letter in a name, unless the name is entirely abbreviated.

Example: H. P. Lovecraft
Example: MLK

Lowercase abbreviations

Place a period after most abbreviations that end in a lowercase letter.

Example: vol. (volume)
Example: ed. (edition)
Example: p. (page)

Honorific abbreviations

For most honorific abbreviations, capitalize the first letter and place a period after the last letter.

Example: Dr. (doctor)
Example: Rev. (reverend)
Example: Mr. (mister)
Example: Mrs. (married woman)
Example: Ms. (does not indicate marital status)
Example: Mx. (gender neutral honorific)

If the abbreviation consists of lowercase letters that each stand in for a word, use a period but no space between each abbreviated letter.

Example: a.m., p.m.
Example: i.e.

Common informal abbreviations

Avoid using common informal abbreviations in academic writing.

Example: Television (not TV)
Example: Refrigerator (not fridge)

Month abbreviations

Avoid abbreviating months in the body of your work. In the works cited page, abbreviate months that are more than four letters long.

Example: Jan., Feb., Mar., Apr., May, June, July, Aug., Sep., Oct., Nov., Dec.