Stay Focused on Purpose

It is critical to keep focused on the purpose of your writing: to prove the thesis.  If you are planning an essay, start with at least a scratch outline and a working thesis – a starting thesis that you know you might change as you draft your paper.  If you are writing an essay exam or paper, be sure to identify the key terms in the instructions such as the following and don’t stray from the topic and/or question or what the instructions say to do: analyze, clarify, classify, compare, contrast, define, describe, discuss, evaluate, explain, identify, illustrate, interpret, justify, relate, summarize, support, or trace.  Remember to review and revise. See Writing Process and Outlining in Related Pages on the right sidebar.

Relevance, Reliability, Accuracy, and Sufficiency

The information presented to prove the thesis should be relevant, reliable, credible, and sufficient.

1. relevant evidence – evidence must be directly and clearly related to proving the thesis
2. reliable evidence – evidence must be consistent and accurate; the same circumstances must have the same result
3. reliable narrator –  there is general presumption in sources that are purportedly factual is that the writer is reliable; however, that it is not necessarily accurate that the writer is presenting consistent or even accurate information even when that writer thinks he or she is.  The term reliable narrator is used more frequently in literary analysis to describe that the person telling the story can be trusted to be giving reliable information.
4. unreliable narrator – an unreliable narrator is where when the person writing the source is not consistent or accurate. The term reliable narrator is used more frequently in literary analysis to describe that the person telling the story cannot be trusted to be giving reliable information.
5. accurate evidence –  for evidence to be credible, it must be factual.  Even one inaccurate piece of information will cause the reader to doubt an author’s credibility.
6. sufficient evidence – evidence must be sufficient.  Sufficiency is a question of whether even though the evidence used to prove the thesis may be reliable and accurate, it may not be enough to prove the thesis
7. representative evidence – a consideration related to relevance, reliability, credibility, and sufficiency is whether the evidence represents the entire group involved in the analysis.  For example, evidence which is relevant, reliable, accurate, and sufficient that shows a high correlation of pesticide content in certain foods may not have been drawn from samples from all over the country, so the incidence may be limited only to the area from which the sample was drawn

Transitional Devices

A good paper must have coherence. This means that all the ideas should be in a logical order and fit together like links in a chain.  One way to do this is to have an overall plan for how the paper will develop, such as in an outline. Another is to use transitional devices.

Transitional devices are a word or words that help one sentence or paragraph flow into the next. Here is an example of two sentences which do not have any transitional information to connect them:

The weather looked threatening. They went on their picnic.

In the above example, we are unsure how these two ideas relate to each other.  See how one word connects the two thoughts in the following example:

The weather looked threatening. Nevertheless, they went on their picnic.

Now we understand the relationship between the ideas. The word Nevertheless serves as a transitional device from one sentence to the next.

Transitional devices can be more than just a word. They can also be entire phrases. Here is an example of a sentence with a phrase that serves as a transitional device.

In spite of the cloudy sky, they went on their picnic.

The words In spite of the cloudy sky are a transitional device.

Just as there should be transitions between sentences, paragraphs should also link together. There are a few ways to do this.

1. Refer to key words or thoughts from the thesis.
2. Refer to key words or ideas from the preceding paragraph.
3. Use transitional expressions.
4. Use transitional sentences.

Using transitions in your paper is like using signals when you drive. Imagine following someone in a car who is leading you to a place you’ve never been before. Think about how difficult it would be to follow him to the correct destination if he didn’t signal! Just as in driving, you don’t want to take a turn in your paper and risk leaving your readers behind.

Facts and Statistics

Facts and statistics can be very persuasive.  In fact, a critical reader will challenge the accuracy or the legitimacy of the sources for purported facts and statistics.

It is important to investigate those ourselves before we use information that is supposed to be factual.  We should know exactly where the information comes from and evaluate whether the source is credible.  It is not a good idea to present information as though it is a fact unless you know it is a fact.

Statistics can be manipulated.  An educated audience will pick that up and you’ll lose credibility if they sense that the presentation of statistics is not honest.

Here’s an example:

A board president claimed that ninety percent of the people who responded to a survey wanted a certain action taken.  When asked how many responded to the survey, he answered that ten people had responded.

Primary and Secondary Sources

A primary source is a source written by the person providing the information.  If you get information from your friend, the friend is the primary source.

In research, it is preferable to get information directly from the source when it is available.

Secondary sources are not directly from the provider of the information.  It is like getting information about what Joan said from John.  This information is not as reliable as primary sources.  However, it is common practice for authors to include what others have said in their articles and analyze what was said.

Visuals

Pictures, charts, graphs, drawings, and diagrams; not appropriate in writing for all courses – check with your instructor if it is not indicated on your assignment.

Rhetorical Modes as Types of Proof

Narration

Narration is the use of language to tell a story. It is the telling of a sequence of events or occurrences.  As a method of helping to prove a thesis, narration might be used to tell the experience of the author or of someone else. For example, in a paper discussing allergies, a writer might narrate his or her experiences with allergies and what was done to control exposure to the allergens or treat the symptoms.

Definition

It is important, especially when dealing with a complex topic, that you define all the key terms in your argument. This is important because not all definitions are universally agreed upon. Take the idea of immigration reform. For some this could mean providing a path to citizenship for illegal immigrants; for others, it could mean tighter border security.

How you define something influences how you and your audience see a particular issue.  Even the terms used to describe an issue can influence the reader. Take for example the difference in calling someone an “illegal immigrant” versus an “undocumented worker.”

Using the first entry in a standard dictionary is not usually sufficient, especially when writing about something very technical. Some areas have specialized dictionaries to define specific terms. The word gross is used very differently if used in everyday language or by a medical clinician.  In everyday language, the word gross means awful or disgusting.  However, in medical language the word gross means large.

Be careful not to use vague or judgmental words in your definition as it can seem to your readers that you are biased or imprecise.

Division and Classification

With complicated topics, it might be helpful to separate the bigger topic or subject area into smaller parts and classify the information according to separate criteria.  For example, in discussing plants, it could help to discuss by categories of plants.

Description

Description is to help bring the reader into the writing.  Specific descriptions of sensations including sights, sounds, smell, touch, and taste can make the reader feel as though he or she is part of the experience which can be a useful strategy in proving a thesis.

Process Analysis

Using examples and facts can support your paper, but simply using these is not enough; you must also think critically about what you have read and react to it. Analysis means to go beyond the obvious and beyond what is literally in the text.

It is very tempting when writing a paper to simply paraphrase or summarize a source than it is to think critically about what was written. Often, when the source is difficult to understand, just repeating his or her words may seem simpler.

Analysis, however, requires a complete understanding of the point the author is making because you must take a complex idea, break it down into smaller, simpler parts, and then figure out how they fit together.

Examples and Illustrations

Using examples is a way to explain or to prove that our position is accurate.  Examples can be true or actual situations or they can be hypothetical.

Using examples are more effective if they are close to or exactly the same circumstances as in the case you are trying to prove.  If a person can think to themselves that there is a significant difference, the example will not be effective.

If you are using an actual event, you should be careful to be sure you are familiar with the details.  If not, using the example can backfire and convince the person of the opposite.

If you use a hypothetical situation as an example, you should think it through completely first.  Again, if it is not a good example, it would weaken your position.

Attorneys use examples to argue cases.  In fact, if they can present a previously decided case in the same jurisdiction that matches up with the existing decision, the judge must decide in their favor.  The supportive case has to be “on all fours,” that is, match up on all the essential points.

Compare/Contrast

We compare and contrast things all the time in life to make decisions from where we buy our groceries to what car to buy. Just as in life, college papers also often require comparing and contrasting. You might have to compare two historic events, world leaders, or poems. Often, even if it is not required, ideas become clearer when you evaluate them in relation to one another.

It is important to remember to be fair when contrasting ideas to show that one is superior.  If you note only the strengths of one and only the faults of the other, your readers may determine that your argument is weak or not credible.

One way to do this is to think about how they are similar in addition to how they differ.  Take the words liberal and conservative for example. Usually, these are seen as very different things, but they do have similarities. They both are political philosophies, they both have a moral underpinning, and they both have people who passionately support their ideals.

Cause/Effect

Another way of proving a thesis is to show the causes and/or effects.  For example, if your thesis is that the use of wind power is the best way of producing electricity, showing the effects of how much electricity can be produced is good proof.  You could also include the bad effects of some other means of producing electricity.

Persuasion/Argumentation

In a way, all communication has a purpose: to persuade or argue for the validity of what is being said.  Even when a person is expressing an emotion, effective communication involves convincing the audience that those feelings are legitimate.

The same strategies used to develop good writing are used when the purpose is specifically to persuade.  Transitional devices, use of examples, facts and statistics, primary and secondary sources, and rhetorical modes including analysis, definition, comparison/contrast, and cause and/or Effect are ways to prove your point.

Examples

See the difference in how these strategies can be used for persuasion.

A simple sentence: It was a cold day.

Transitional device: In addition to being dark and cloudy, it was a cold day.

Example: It was so cold that the chill of the air was felt right through layers of clothing.

Facts/Statistics: It was a record-breaking cold with temperatures plummeting below 15o F.

Primary Source: According to Jones, “Temperatures fell as though we were entering another Ice Age.”

Secondary Source: Goldstein agreed: “This cold wave surpasses any recorded to date” (qtd. in Jones).

Rhetorical Modes

Narration: While I was walking in the park, I noticed that it was a cold day.

Definition: The temperature at which water freezes is 32o F.  This is typically the temperature used to describe weather conditions as freezing.

Description: It was so cold that frost was forming on the windows and the leaves on the plants were curling.

Process Analysis: The measurement of what is considered a cold day includes the temperature and humidity reading along with any wind-chill factor.

Comparison/Contrast: It was so cold this year that the strawberries froze and fell to the ground whereas last year’s crop survived the freeze.

Cause/Effect: Because it was so cold, the strawberries froze and fell to the ground.

Persuasion/Argumentation: The reading on the thermometer of 32o F, the frost or the windows, and the curling leaves of the plants show it was a cold day.

Logic

Learning about logical thinking helps us in two ways:  we learn to evaluate and use information better and we learn how to better present information to others to prove our point.  In other words, we learn to think about information we hear or see, and we learn to think better ourselves.

Inductive Reasoning

There are different kinds of reasoning.  Inductive reasoning is logic that draws a generalization from a particular piece of information.  For example, a person who has only seen red colored roses might (erroneously) infer that all roses are red. Inductive reasoning is subject to error since the particular observation is not necessarily representative of a larger group.  Sometimes, this type of thinking causes people to infer that some bad attribute of one in a group exists among all in that group such as seeing one rotting apple in the bag, makes an inductive leap that all the apples must be rotting. Of course, this doesn't really make sense, but people make these kinds of hasty generalizations all the time which is an error in logic.

Deductive Reasoning 

Deductive reasoning is logic that draws a conclusion about a particular situation from a general rule.  This is more likely to result in an accurate conclusion since a general rule usually applies to all situations within its category: All flowers need water; therefore, petunias need water. 

Syllogism

A syllogism is a three-part sequence of reasoned thoughts to draw a logical conclusion: All flowers need water. Petunias are flowers. Petunias need water.

The syllogism consists of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion.  The major premise is the general or universal assumption used to make a logical analysis: All flowers need water.  Note that if a major premise is not accurate, the resulting conclusion will not be accurate although it may be logical.

The minor premise is the assumption pertaining to an example in the major premise: Petunias are flowers.  Note that if a minor premise is not accurate, the resulting conclusion will not be accurate although it may be logical.  The conclusion (logical conclusion) is the resulting logical thought of analyzing the major and minor premise.  Logical conclusions are not necessarily true or accurate since the major premise or minor premise may not be accurate.

Other Terms Related to Logic

• self-evident – evidence that is apparent by observation or reasoning
• valid argument – an argument that based on logical analysis of information; not necessarily true
• sound argument – an argument based on a syllogism that has accurate major and minor premises

Toulmin Logic

Toulmin Logic is a form of logic that uses claim, grounds, and warrant for analyzing the logic of an argument.

• Claim – the thesis; the point that is to be proved in Toulmin Logic
• Grounds – the evidence (proof, support) for the claim in Toulmin Logic
• Warrant – the result assumption of an analysis of claim and grounds in Toulmin Logic.

Logical Fallacies (Flawed Logic) 

A logical fallacy is a fallacy in logic.  It is flawed logic.  In order to be convincing, using logic is important. Also, identifying the flaws in what someone is saying or writing is necessary for a critical analysis.

There are several logical fallacies:

1. Sweeping generalization – hasty generalization resulting in a conclusion that is not necessarily accurate;  inductive reasoning (going from a particular point to a universal rule) which is not thought through carefully.  There is one rotting apple in the bag; therefore, all the apples in the bag are rotting.
2. Argument to the person (ad hominem) – a statement raising questions about a person’s honesty or integrity who is taking a stand on an issue instead of making an argument on the issue itself.  The candidate opposing the widening of the road is being investigated for tax evasion instead of arguing that the widening of the road is needed to alleviate traffic on another road.
3. Non sequitur – a line of argument that really does follow logically.  The road should not be widened because the city park is nearby.  What does the park have to do with the widening of the road? This often happens when the argument is just not clearly expressed.  The road should not be widened because it will increase traffic on a street that many children cross to go to the city park.
4. Either/or fallacy – where only two choices are presented instead of giving all the options.  The county commissioners asked residents if they preferred a slight increase in taxes or charging a parking fee for on all county parks.
5. Begging the question – using the argument that something is true or accurate because it is true or accurate.
6. Bandwagon argument – Everyone else is doing it; therefore, you should
7. Appeals – use of language to sway the reader by appealing to emotions, logic, or ethics.
8. Strawman fallacy – where the opponent’s position is unfairly shown to be extreme or illogical in order to minimize its strength.
9. False comparison fallacy – where a position is compared to something which has some similarities but which is not comparable in a significant way resulting in a false negative comparison
10. Faulty causality fallacy – where an occurrence or event is represented to cause another occurrence or event because they happen at the same time or close in time
11. Slippery slope fallacy – where an action is represented to result in an adverse consequence even though that consequence is very remote.
12. Red herring fallacy – where an irrelevant issue or situation is raised to distract the argument from the point; changing the subject

Appeals

Appeals are the use of language designed to create a particular type of response in the audience.  There are three types of appeals.

1. emotional appeals – presenting information designed to result in emotion.  Commercials typically have emotional appeals to make the audience feel in a certain way.  Perfume commercials showing couples; diaper commercials showing happy babies.  There are many speeches that used emotional appeals to show the audience the validity of the point being made.
2. logical appeals – presenting information designed to result in the audience thinking that what is being promoted is logical.  Examples include a commercial to refinance focuses on how money can be saved or an evaluation of the beneficial effects of a specific course of action such as more community participation or a source of revenue for a business.
3. ethical appeals – presenting information designed to result in the audience thinking that what is being promoted is the right thing such as contributing to organizations that help victims of natural disasters.

Some uses of appeals are thought to be unfair such as images of abused pets or hungry children.  People tend to react emotionally instead of evaluating whether the particular organization will make good use of donations.

Rhetoric

Rhetoric is the art of persuasion.  In addition to using techniques such as unity and coherence and logic, the modes of rhetoric are used.  Rhetorical modes are ways to use language for persuasion. In addition to using a sentence variety, unity and coherence, and logic, modes such as narration, comparing and contrasting, and cause and/or effect to prove a point.  These can be used within a paragraph as well as the approach for an entire essay.

Types of Rhetorical Modes

Narration

Narration is when an author writes as though telling a story.  This mode is used more often in fiction, but it can be used in academic essay writing when the best way to help prove the thesis is by relating a sequence of events.

Description/Definition/Exemplification, and Classification

These closely related modes use specific information about certain aspects of a thing, event, or situation. The terms speak for themselves.  Description uses details describing the thing, event, or situation. Definition defines it. Exemplification uses examples, and classification uses categories.

The rose was red. (description)

A rose is a flower with soft petals and a beautiful, brief bloom. (definition)

Roses come in a variety of colors such as red, yellow, and white. (example)

Roses come in a variety of types including miniature, climbing, hybrid tea, and floribunda. (classification)

Compare/Contrast

Comparing and/or contrasting one thing, event, or situation is a helpful way to show what it is and isn't.  If someone were arguing that a particular type of sneaker was the best, it would be useful to compare to others for support, durability, and price.

Cause and/or Effect

This mode is useful in arguing for or against an action.  Showing the cause and/or effect of an action can be persuasive.  For example, if someone were arguing for an increase in the speed limit, statistics showing an increase in fatalities where limits are higher would be a persuasive argument.

Persuasion/Argumentation

In a sense, the ultimate intent of all communication is persuasion.  Argumentation is one way of talking about debate.  We think of arguing as what we do among friends or family members - and it is - but there is a formal way to argue to prove our point.  Actually, we can learn how to better have civil arguments which will be constructive.  In thinking about persuasion/argumentation as a rhetorical mode, it refers to a type of writing that is clearly arguing in support of a specific point.